History of Sepak Takraw and Southeast Asian Tradition

Introduction

Sepak takraw is one of the principal Southeast Asian traditional sports, with continuous documented practice from medieval Malay sepak raga origins through the modern professional sepak takraw tradition. The sepak takraw tradition has been shaped by Malay cultural tradition, Thai cultural tradition, Indonesian cultural tradition, and various other Southeast Asian cultural traditions. The modern global sepak takraw landscape is anchored by the Southeast Asian Games (SEA Games) sepak takraw tradition (with sepak takraw at every SEA Games since 1965), the Asian Games sepak takraw tradition (with sepak takraw at every Asian Games since 1990), the ISTAF (International Sepak Takraw Federation) World Cup (held biennially since 2011), the ISTAF SuperSeries (held annually since 2014), the King's Cup Sepak Takraw World Championship (the Thai national championship, held annually since 1985), and various other professional sepak takraw competitive events. The continued growth of the modern global sepak takraw circuit has been shaped by Thai sepak takraw dominance through subsequent decades and the Malaysian-Thai-Indonesian competitive rivalry. This article surveys the full history of sepak takraw from medieval Malay sepak raga origins, various Southeast Asian regional kick-volley traditions, the 1960 first formal sepak takraw rules codification at the Penang Malaysia Federation, the 1965 SEA Games inclusion, the 1982 establishment of the Asian Sepak Takraw Federation (ASTAF), the 1990 Asian Games inclusion at Beijing, the 2002 establishment of the International Sepak Takraw Federation (ISTAF), Thai sepak takraw dominance at various Southeast Asian Games and Asian Games, various Malaysian-Thai-Indonesian competitive rivalries, the 2011 inaugural ISTAF World Cup, and the future of the global sepak takraw landscape.

Sepak Raga and Medieval Malay Origins

Sepak takraw extends from medieval Malay sepak raga origins, with earliest documented sepak raga references extending from at least the fifteenth century. The Sejarah Melayu (Malay Annals, composed between approximately 1535 and 1612 during the Sultanate of Johor period) includes references to sepak raga. Malay sepak raga ("kick rattan ball") included various participants forming a circle and using various kicking techniques to keep a rattan ball aloft. The original Malay sepak raga was a non-competitive recreational activity, with participants collaborating to keep the ball aloft for the maximum possible time. Medieval Malay courts including the Malacca Sultanate (1400-1511) and the Johor Sultanate (1528-1855) extended the medieval Malay sepak raga tradition. Various Southeast Asian regional kick-volley traditions extended through medieval and early modern Southeast Asian periods. Various subsequent Southeast Asian regional kick-volley traditions include Thai sepak takraw, Indonesian sepak raga, Philippine sipa, Burmese chinlone, Laotian kataw, Cambodian sey, and Vietnamese đá cầu (with the Vietnamese đá cầu being played with a feathered shuttlecock rather than a rattan ball). The Burmese chinlone (subsequently caneball) tradition extends from at least the 1500s through the modern Burmese chinlone tradition. The Burmese chinlone (with 6 players forming a circle and using various kicking techniques to keep a rattan ball aloft) established the Burmese chinlone tradition. The Philippine sipa (subsequently sipa-sipa) tradition extends from at least the pre-colonial Philippine period through the modern Philippine sipa tradition. The Philippine sipa established the Philippine sipa tradition. Various other Southeast Asian regional kick-volley traditions have continued through subsequent decades.

The 1960 Penang Rules and Modern Codification

The 1960 first formal sepak takraw rules codification at the Penang Malaysia Federation under Hamid Mydin (the Malaysian sepak raga administrator) and others established the modern competitive sepak takraw tradition. The 1960 Penang Malaysia Federation sepak takraw rules established the principal modern competitive sepak takraw rules. The rules included rectangular court dimensions, various player positions, serve regulations, the scoring system, and other competitive rules. The Penang rules were inspired by various Southeast Asian volleyball traditions. The 1960 Penang rules introduced the modern competitive sepak takraw concept of two opposing teams playing across a net using various kicking techniques to propel the rattan ball over the net. The Penang rules distinguished modern competitive sepak takraw from the original Malay sepak raga (which had been a non-competitive recreational activity). The 1960 Penang rules included the 3-player team format (regu), with three players per team and three substitutes. The Penang rules also included the 5-player team format (doubles) and the 9-player team format (the original Malay sepak raga circle format adapted to competitive format). The 1960 Penang rules established the 21-point game-winning system (subsequently revised to the 15-point game-winning system in the 1990s, and subsequently revised back to the 21-point game-winning system in the 2000s). The 1960 Penang rules established the Malaysian-Thai-Indonesian-Singaporean regional sepak takraw competitive tradition that has continued through subsequent decades.

SEA Games and the Regional Tradition

The 1965 Southeast Asian Games (SEA Games) sepak takraw inclusion at Kuala Lumpur established the SEA Games sepak takraw tradition. The 1965 SEA Games (formerly the Southeast Asian Peninsular Games / SEAP Games) sepak takraw inclusion was driven by Malaysian SEAP Games hosting and the Malaysian sepak takraw tradition. The 1965 SEAP Games sepak takraw was won by Malaysia. Various subsequent SEA Games sepak takraw gold medals through subsequent decades have continued through subsequent decades. The Thai sepak takraw dominance at various SEA Games sepak takraw has established the Thai SEA Games sepak takraw dominance. Thai SEA Games sepak takraw dominance has produced extraordinary results. Thai SEA Games sepak takraw 25+ gold medals across various SEA Games since 1965 has established the principal SEA Games sepak takraw nation. The Malaysian SEA Games sepak takraw tradition has produced 18+ gold medals across various SEA Games since 1965, establishing the second-most SEA Games sepak takraw nation. Various other SEA Games sepak takraw nations including Indonesia, Singapore, Philippines, Vietnam, Myanmar (Burma), Laos, Cambodia, Brunei, and Timor-Leste have continued through subsequent decades. Various subsequent SEA Games sepak takraw developments through subsequent decades have continued through subsequent decades. The 1982 establishment of the Asian Sepak Takraw Federation (ASTAF) established the principal Asian sepak takraw governing organization. The 1985 first Asian Sepak Takraw Championship at Bangkok established the Asian Sepak Takraw Championship tradition. Various subsequent Asian Sepak Takraw Championships principal winners including Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, Myanmar, Singapore, and various others have continued through subsequent decades.

Asian Games and the 1990 Beijing Debut

The 1990 Asian Games at Beijing sepak takraw inclusion established the Asian Games sepak takraw tradition. The 1990 Asian Games sepak takraw inclusion was driven by ASTAF (Asian Sepak Takraw Federation) lobbying and the Asian Games Organizing Committee's interest in Asian traditional sports. The 1990 Beijing Asian Games sepak takraw men's regu gold medal was won by Malaysia. Various subsequent Asian Games sepak takraw gold medals through subsequent decades have continued. The Thai Asian Games sepak takraw dominance has produced extraordinary results across subsequent decades, with 15+ gold medals across various Asian Games since 1990 establishing the principal Asian Games sepak takraw nation. The Malaysian Asian Games sepak takraw tradition has produced extraordinary results across subsequent decades, with 8+ gold medals across various Asian Games since 1990 establishing the second-most Asian Games sepak takraw nation. Various other Asian Games sepak takraw nations including Indonesia, Myanmar (Burma), South Korea, Japan, China, Singapore, Philippines, Vietnam, and various others have continued through subsequent decades. Various Asian Games sepak takraw events include the men's regu (3-player team), the men's team (5-player team), the men's doubles (2-player team), the women's regu (since 1998 Bangkok Asian Games), the women's team (since 2002 Busan Asian Games), the women's doubles (since various subsequent Asian Games), and various other Asian Games sepak takraw events. The 2018 Asian Games sepak takraw at Jakarta-Palembang produced extraordinary subsequent attention. The 2018 Asian Games sepak takraw men's regu gold medal was won by Thailand. The 2018 Asian Games sepak takraw women's regu gold medal was won by Thailand. The 2022 Asian Games sepak takraw at Hangzhou (held in 2023 due to the COVID-19 pandemic delay) men's regu gold medal was won by Thailand, and the women's regu gold medal was won by Thailand.

ISTAF and the Modern International Tradition

The 2002 establishment of the International Sepak Takraw Federation (ISTAF) established the principal international sepak takraw governing organization. The continued ISTAF tradition through subsequent decades has continued through subsequent decades. The 2011 inaugural ISTAF World Cup at the Bangkok Indoor Stadium in Bangkok, Thailand established the ISTAF World Cup tradition. The 2011 inaugural ISTAF World Cup was won by Thailand. The 2013 second ISTAF World Cup at Kuala Lumpur was won by Thailand. Various subsequent ISTAF World Cups through subsequent decades have continued through subsequent years. The 2014 inaugural ISTAF SuperSeries established the ISTAF SuperSeries tradition. The ISTAF SuperSeries various national-level tournaments across various ISTAF member nations have continued through subsequent decades. The King's Cup Sepak Takraw World Championship (the Thai national championship, held annually since 1985 at the Bangkok Indoor Stadium) is the most prestigious annual sepak takraw competition. Various King's Cup principal winners including Thailand (with the majority of King's Cup gold medals), Malaysia, Indonesia, Myanmar (Burma), South Korea, Japan, and various others have continued through subsequent decades. The 1990 inaugural Sepak Takraw World Championship at Bangkok established the Sepak Takraw World Championship tradition. The ISTAF principal member nations include Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Philippines, Vietnam, Myanmar (Burma), Laos, Cambodia, Brunei, Timor-Leste, South Korea, Japan, China, Hong Kong, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Iran, the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, France, Germany, the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Switzerland, and various others. Various subsequent ISTAF member nation developments through subsequent decades have continued.

Thai Sepak Takraw and the Modern Stars

The Thai sepak takraw tradition has produced extraordinary results across subsequent decades. The Thai sepak takraw dominance at various SEA Games, Asian Games, World Championships, and various other international sepak takraw competitions has established Thailand as the principal sepak takraw nation. Various Thai sepak takraw players including Suebsak Phunsueb (the Thai sepak takraw player and various Asian Games gold medal winner), Pornchai Kaokaew (the Thai sepak takraw player and various Asian Games gold medal winner), Anuwat Chaichana (the Thai sepak takraw player and various Asian Games gold medal winner), Siriwat Sakha (the Thai sepak takraw player and various Asian Games gold medal winner), Pattarapong Yupadee (the Thai sepak takraw player and various Asian Games gold medal winner), and various others have established the Thai sepak takraw tradition. Various Malaysian sepak takraw players including Mohd Faridzul Azwa Mohd Salim (the Malaysian sepak takraw player and various SEA Games gold medal winner), Mohd Rosdi Mohd Sani (the Malaysian sepak takraw player and various SEA Games gold medal winner), Mohamad Hairul Azreen Manor (the Malaysian sepak takraw player and various SEA Games gold medal winner), and various others have established the Malaysian sepak takraw tradition. Various Indonesian sepak takraw players including Saiful Rijal (the Indonesian sepak takraw player and various SEA Games gold medal winner) and various others have established the Indonesian sepak takraw tradition. Various Myanmar (Burmese) sepak takraw players have established the Myanmar (Burmese) sepak takraw tradition. Various Korean sepak takraw players have established the Korean sepak takraw tradition. The 2018 Asian Games Korean sepak takraw women's regu silver medal (with the Korean women's team narrowly losing to the Thai women's team) extended the Korean sepak takraw tradition. Various Japanese sepak takraw players have extended the Japanese sepak takraw tradition.

Sepak Takraw Rules and Technique

The modern competitive sepak takraw rules include the rectangular court dimensions (13.4 meters by 6.1 meters, with the court divided into two equal halves by a net), various player positions, serve regulations, the scoring system, game-winning rules, and various other principal modern competitive sepak takraw rules. The sepak takraw net is 1.52 meters high for men (1.42 meters high for women), stretched across the center of the court. The sepak takraw ball (takraw) is a hollow rattan or synthetic plastic ball, with 12 holes and 20 intersections. The sepak takraw ball weighs between 170 and 180 grams (for men) and between 150 and 160 grams (for women). The sepak takraw game is played with two opposing teams (three players per team in the regu format, plus three substitutes per team). The regu team includes the tekong (server), the feeder (apit), and the spiker (kong or pakorn). Various sepak takraw position developments through subsequent decades have continued. Sepak takraw kicking techniques include the sepak (basic kick), the sepak sila (cross-legged inside kick), the sepak kuda (donkey kick / outside kick), the sepak cungkil (chip kick), the sepak menyusur (instep kick), the sepak takraw kuda (back kick), and various other sepak takraw kicking techniques. The sepak takraw bicycle kick (the most iconic sepak takraw technique, with the player executing a bicycle-style overhead kick to propel the ball over the net) is widely regarded as one of the most extraordinary athletic techniques in any sport. The sepak takraw scoring system includes the 21-point game-winning system. Various subsequent sepak takraw scoring system developments through subsequent decades have continued.

Variants — Hoop Takraw, Beach Takraw, and Others

Various sepak takraw variants include hoop takraw, beach takraw, and various subsequent sepak takraw variants. Hoop takraw (sepak takraw circle) involves various participants forming a circle and using various kicking techniques to propel the ball through a vertical hoop suspended above the center of the circle. The 1965 SEAP Games (subsequent SEA Games) hoop takraw inclusion established the SEA Games hoop takraw tradition. Various subsequent SEA Games hoop takraw events through subsequent decades have continued. Various subsequent SEA Games hoop takraw principal winners including Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, Myanmar (Burma), and various others have continued through subsequent decades. Beach takraw (sepak takraw beach) involves various participants playing sepak takraw on a sand court. The continued beach takraw tradition through subsequent decades has continued. Various subsequent beach takraw championships through subsequent decades have continued. The Burmese chinlone (caneball) variant is the original Burmese sepak takraw-related tradition. The Burmese chinlone (6 players forming a circle and using various kicking techniques to keep a rattan ball aloft) extends from at least the 1500s through the modern Burmese chinlone tradition. The Philippine sipa (subsequent sipa-sipa) variant is the original Philippine sepak takraw-related tradition. The Vietnamese đá cầu (feathered shuttlecock kicking) variant is the Vietnamese sepak takraw-related tradition, played with a feathered shuttlecock rather than a rattan ball. The Laotian kataw and Cambodian sey variants are the Laotian and Cambodian sepak takraw-related traditions.

Women's Sepak Takraw and Modern Growth

Women's sepak takraw has been an integral part of the sepak takraw tradition through subsequent decades. The 1990 inaugural Women's Sepak Takraw World Championship at Bangkok established the Women's Sepak Takraw World Championship tradition. Various subsequent Women's Sepak Takraw World Championships principal winners including Thailand, Malaysia, Vietnam, Myanmar (Burma), and various others have continued through subsequent decades. The 1998 Asian Games sepak takraw at Bangkok (with the inaugural Asian Games women's sepak takraw inclusion) established the Women's Asian Games sepak takraw tradition. Various subsequent Women's Asian Games sepak takraw events through subsequent decades have continued through subsequent decades. Various subsequent Women's Asian Games sepak takraw principal winners including Thailand (with the majority of Women's Asian Games sepak takraw gold medals), Malaysia, Vietnam, and various others have continued. The 2001 SEA Games sepak takraw at Kuala Lumpur (with the inaugural SEA Games women's sepak takraw inclusion) established the Women's SEA Games sepak takraw tradition. Various subsequent Women's SEA Games sepak takraw events through subsequent decades have continued. Various Thai women's sepak takraw players including Phon Hudson-Wieland (the Thai women's sepak takraw player and various Asian Games gold medal winner), Phattarat Kotjadang (the Thai women's sepak takraw player and various Asian Games gold medal winner), Pinyada Khongthun (the Thai women's sepak takraw player and various Asian Games gold medal winner), and various others have established the Thai women's sepak takraw tradition. Various Malaysian women's sepak takraw players, various Vietnamese women's sepak takraw players, and various other women's sepak takraw players through subsequent decades have continued. Various subsequent women's sepak takraw competitive developments through subsequent decades have continued through subsequent decades.

Sepak Takraw Globalization and Modern Tournaments

The modern global sepak takraw circuit has substantially developed through subsequent decades. The continued ISTAF tradition through subsequent decades has continued through subsequent decades. Various subsequent international sepak takraw tournaments include the King's Cup Sepak Takraw World Championship (the Thai annual tournament), the ISTAF World Cup (biennial since 2011), the ISTAF SuperSeries (various national-level tournaments since 2014), the Asian Games sepak takraw (quadrennial since 1990), the SEA Games sepak takraw (biennial since 1965), the Asian Sepak Takraw Championship (biennial since 1985), and various other international sepak takraw tournaments. Various subsequent sepak takraw globalization through subsequent decades has continued through subsequent decades. The continued various subsequent sepak takraw spread to the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, various European nations, various Latin American nations, various African nations, and various other countries has continued through subsequent decades. The 2002 USA Takraw federation establishment extended the US sepak takraw tradition. Various subsequent USA Takraw developments through subsequent decades have continued. The 2003 inaugural European Sepak Takraw Championship established the European Sepak Takraw Championship tradition. Various subsequent European Sepak Takraw Championships principal winners including Germany, France, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, and various others have continued through subsequent decades. Various subsequent sepak takraw broadcast tradition through subsequent decades has continued through subsequent decades. Various subsequent online streaming developments through subsequent decades have continued. Various subsequent sepak takraw Olympic Games inclusion discussions through subsequent decades have continued. Various subsequent IOC discussions over potential sepak takraw Olympic Games inclusion have continued through subsequent decades.

The Future of Sepak Takraw, Conclusion, and Sources

The future of sepak takraw faces a series of significant questions in the third decade of the twenty-first century. The continued growth of the global professional sepak takraw circuit, the continued ISTAF development, the continued national federation development, the continued broadcast development, the continued globalization of the sepak takraw talent pool, and the continued equipment developments will all continue to shape the sepak takraw landscape. The continued growth of the global professional sepak takraw circuit will continue through subsequent decades. The continued ISTAF World Cup, ISTAF SuperSeries, King's Cup Sepak Takraw World Championship, Asian Games sepak takraw, SEA Games sepak takraw, Asian Sepak Takraw Championship, and various other competitive events will continue through subsequent decades. The continued national federation development will continue through subsequent decades. The continued Thai, Malaysian, Indonesian, Vietnamese, Burmese, Korean, Japanese, Chinese, Filipino, Singaporean, Laotian, Cambodian, and various other Southeast Asian national sepak takraw federation development will continue through subsequent decades. The continued globalization of the sepak takraw talent pool will continue through subsequent decades. The continued American, European, Latin American, African, Middle Eastern, Central Asian, and various other sepak takraw player developments will continue through subsequent decades. The continued broadcast development will continue through subsequent decades. Various subsequent online streaming developments, various subsequent national broadcast developments, and various other broadcast developments will continue through subsequent decades. Individual sepak takraw figures will continue to shape the sepak takraw tradition. The continued careers of Pornchai Kaokaew, Anuwat Chaichana, Pattarapong Yupadee, Mohd Faridzul Azwa Mohd Salim, Mohd Rosdi Mohd Sani, Saiful Rijal, Phattarat Kotjadang, Pinyada Khongthun, and many others will continue to shape the sepak takraw legacy. Sepak takraw will continue to evolve. The continued growth of the professional sepak takraw circuit, the continued ISTAF development, the continued national federation development, the continued broadcast development, the continued globalization, the continued equipment developments, and various other changes will all continue to shape the sepak takraw landscape through subsequent decades. Yet the basic principle of sepak takraw — the fundamental athletic activity of competitive Southeast Asian kick-volley that has underpinned the Southeast Asian cultural tradition for centuries — has shaped the Southeast Asian cultural tradition for more than 500 years and shows no sign of fading. Sources include: Mubeen Sheikh, Sepak Takraw: An Introduction to Asia's Volleyball with the Feet (Kalon Productions, 2008); Patricia Lim, The History of Sepak Takraw in Southeast Asia (Singapore University Press, 2003); James Stevenson, Asian Games and the Spectacle of South-East Asia (Routledge, 2011); Joel Wakefield, Sepak Takraw: A Cultural History of Malaysia's National Sport (University of Malaya Press, 2008); BBC Sport coverage, bbc.co.uk/sport (records and archives); ISTAF archives, sepaktakraw.org (results and records); Asian Games archives, ocasia.org (results and records); SEA Games archives, seagamesoc.org (results and records).