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History of Holy See
From antiquity to the modern era — the historical eras, key events, and narrative that shaped Holy See.
Overview
The Holy See’s diplomatic history began in the fourth century, but the boundaries of the papacy’s temporal power have shifted over the centuries. From the 8th century through the middle of the 19th century, the Popes held sway over the Papal States, which included a broad band of territory across central Italy. In 1860, after prolonged civil and regional unrest, Victor Emmanuel’s army seized the Papal States, leaving only Rome and surrounding coastal regions under papal control.
In 1870, Victor Emmanuel captured Rome itself and declared it the new capital of Italy, ending papal claims to temporal power. Pope Pius IX and his successors disputed the legitimacy of these acts and proclaimed themselves to be "prisoners" in the Vatican. Finally, in 1929, the Italian Government and the Holy See signed three agreements resolving the dispute:
- A treaty recognizing the independence and sovereignty of the Holy See and creating the State of the Vatican City;
- A concordat defining the relations between the government and the church within Italy; and
- A financial convention providing the Holy See with compensation for its losses in 1870.
A revised concordat, altering the terms of church-state relations, was signed in 1984.
Historical Eras
The major periods of {country}’s history at a glance.
Early Papal Foundations
326 – 756
Following Constantine's legalization of Christianity, the first basilica was erected over Saint Peter's traditional tomb in 326, anchoring Rome as the spiritual center of Christendom. The papacy developed its theological authority and diplomatic reach across the crumbling Western Roman Empire. This era established the institutional foundations of the Holy See as both a religious and emerging political force in Europe.
Papal States Era
756 – 1054
The Donation of Pepin granted the papacy temporal control over central Italian territories, formally establishing the Papal States as a sovereign political entity. Popes navigated complex relationships with Frankish and later Holy Roman emperors, asserting spiritual supremacy while defending territorial holdings. The era culminated in the Great Schism of 1054, which permanently divided the Roman and Eastern Orthodox churches.
Medieval & Crusade Period
1054 – 1417
Pope Urban II launched the Crusades in 1095, projecting papal authority into the Holy Land and cementing the papacy's role as director of Western Christendom. The period witnessed intense conflicts with Holy Roman emperors, the sack of Rome by Henry IV in 1083, and the founding of military orders such as the Knights Templar. Papal prestige peaked with Innocent III before declining sharply during the Avignon papacy and the Western Schism.
Renaissance Papacy
1417 – 1648
Restored to Rome after the Western Schism, the papacy became one of the great Renaissance patrons, commissioning Michelangelo's Sistine Chapel ceiling, Raphael's Vatican frescoes, and the rebuilding of St. Peter's Basilica, consecrated in 1626. The Protestant Reformation challenged papal authority across northern Europe, prompting the Counter-Reformation and the Council of Trent. This era defined Catholic identity and artistic heritage that endures to the present day.
Loss of Temporal Power
1648 – 1929
The gradual erosion of papal secular authority accelerated dramatically when Victor Emmanuel's forces seized the Papal States in 1860 and captured Rome in 1870, declaring it the capital of unified Italy. Popes Pius IX and his successors refused to recognize the Italian state, confining themselves as self-declared prisoners within the Vatican. The standoff ended with the 1929 Lateran Treaties, which recognized Vatican City as an independent sovereign state and compensated the Holy See for its territorial losses.
Vatican City State
1929 – present
The Lateran Treaties of 1929 created the modern State of Vatican City, the world's smallest sovereign state, resolving sixty years of dispute with Italy. A revised concordat in 1984 further adjusted church-state relations, removing Catholicism's status as Italy's official state religion. The Holy See has since expanded its global diplomatic presence, engaging with issues of religious freedom, international development, interfaith dialogue, and the moral dimensions of globalization under a succession of influential pontiffs.
Timeline Preview
The first 7 key events. View the full chronology on the timeline page.
326
First church built on the site of Vatican City, traditional place of Saint Peter’s tomb.
First church built on the site of Vatican City, traditional place of Saint Peter’s tomb.
1054
The Roman and Orthodox Churches split decisively.
The Roman and Orthodox Churches split decisively. The Orthodox Church did not accept the papal authority from Rome. Christians in southern Albania were left under the ecumenical patriarch of Constantinople and those in the north under the pope in Rome.
1083
Henry IV of Germany stormed Rome capturing St. Peter’s Basilica.
Henry IV of Germany stormed Rome capturing St. Peter’s Basilica.
1095
Pope Urban urged the faithful to wrest the Holy Land from the Muslims, heralding start of Crusades.
Pope Urban urged the faithful to wrest the Holy Land from the Muslims, heralding start of Crusades.
1119
The Knights Templar were founded to protect pilgrims in the Holy Land during the second Crusade.
The Knights Templar were founded to protect pilgrims in the Holy Land during the second Crusade.
1148
The Second Crusade.
The Second Crusade.
1477 – 1480
Pope Sixtus IV (1471-1492) started building a great chapel, named "Sistina" .
Pope Sixtus IV (1471-1492) started building a great chapel, named "Sistina" after him, decorated with frescoes painted by the major Italian painters of the time.