History of Sumo Wrestling and the Yokozuna Tradition

Introduction

Sumo wrestling is the national sport of Japan, with continuous documented practice from Shinto religious origins through the modern professional sumo tradition. The sumo tradition has been shaped by the Japanese imperial tradition, the Shinto religious tradition, Tokugawa shogunate patronage, and the broader Japanese cultural tradition. The modern professional sumo landscape is anchored by the Japan Sumo Association (Nihon Sumo Kyokai, established 1927), the six honbasho (grand tournament) annual schedule held in odd-numbered months (January, March, May, July, September, November) across various Japanese honbasho venues including the Ryogoku Kokugikan in Tokyo, the Osaka Prefectural Gymnasium, the Aichi Prefectural Gymnasium in Nagoya, and the Fukuoka Kokusai Center. The various lower division (juryo, makushita, sandanme, jonidan, jonokuchi) tournaments run alongside the makuuchi (top division) tournaments. Various jungyo (regional tour) competitions are held during the months between the honbasho. This article surveys the full history of sumo wrestling from Shinto religious origins, the eighth-century CE Nara period imperial sumo development, the Heian period imperial sumo tournament tradition, the Edo period professional sumo tradition under Tokugawa shogunate patronage, the Meiji Restoration sumo modernization, the 1927 Japan Sumo Association establishment, the yokozuna tradition, Futabayama's 69-bout winning streak from 1936 through 1939, Taiho's 32 tournament championships of the 1960s, Kitanoumi and Wakanohana eras of the 1970s, Chiyonofuji's 31 tournament championships of the 1980s, Akebono's 1993 first foreign-born yokozuna, Takanohana's competitive career, the Hawaiian sumo wrestlers including Akebono and Musashimaru, Hakuho's record 45 tournament championships through 2021, the Mongolian yokozuna era, and the modern Japan Sumo Association.

Shinto Origins and the Imperial Tradition

Sumo extends from Shinto religious origins, with the earliest documented sumo references in the Kojiki (Records of Ancient Matters, completed 712 CE) and the Nihon Shoki (Chronicles of Japan, completed 720 CE). These chronicles include the divine sumo legend between the Shinto deities Takemikazuchi and Takeminakata at the Izumo coast, with Takemikazuchi's sumo victory establishing the Shinto divine sumo tradition. The earliest documented historical sumo match is widely regarded as the 23 BCE Suijinin sumo match between Nomi no Sukune and Taima no Kuehaya during the reign of Emperor Suinin (the 11th Japanese emperor according to traditional Japanese chronology). Nomi no Sukune's victory over Taima no Kuehaya (with Taima no Kuehaya's subsequent death from extensive injuries) established Nomi no Sukune as the patron deity of sumo wrestling. The Nara period (710-794 CE) imperial sumo development established the imperial sumo tradition. The 734 CE imperial sumai festival (sumai sechie) at the Nara imperial court under Emperor Shomu established the Nara imperial sumai tradition. The Heian period (794-1185 CE) imperial sumai tradition extended this through the ninth through twelfth centuries. Various subsequent Kamakura period (1185-1333) and Muromachi period (1336-1573) sumo developments shaped the subsequent sumo tradition. Various Kamakura warrior class sumo developments established the subsequent samurai sumo tradition. Various Sengoku period (1467-1615) and Azuchi-Momoyama period (1573-1603) sumo developments continued the feudal sumo tradition. Oda Nobunaga (the Japanese warlord, 1534-1582) was a noted patron of sumo, hosting tournaments at his castles.

The Edo Period and Professional Sumo

The Edo period (1603-1868) professional sumo tradition under Tokugawa shogunate patronage established the modern professional sumo tradition. The 1684 Tokugawa shogunate patronage of professional sumo (kanjin sumo) at the Tomioka Hachimangu Shrine in Edo (modern Tokyo) established the Edo period professional sumo tradition. The 1789 Yoshida Tsukasake establishment of the yokozuna licensing tradition established the broader yokozuna tradition. Yoshida Tsukasake's 1789 first yokozuna license to Tanikaze Kajinosuke (the 4th yokozuna in the retrospective yokozuna chronology) established the yokozuna licensing tradition that has continued through subsequent centuries. Tanikaze Kajinosuke (1750-1795, the 4th yokozuna) and Onogawa Kisaburo (1758-1806, the 5th yokozuna) established the Edo period yokozuna tradition. Inazuma Raigoro (the 7th yokozuna) and Hidenoyama Raigoro (the 9th yokozuna) extended the Edo period yokozuna tradition through the 1830s and 1840s. The 1861 Unryu Kyuukichi (the 10th yokozuna) yokozuna ring-entering ceremony — the unryu-style ring-entering ceremony that has continued as the principal yokozuna ring-entering ceremony — established the unryu tradition. The 1862 Shiranui Koemon (the 11th yokozuna) yokozuna ring-entering ceremony — the shiranui-style ring-entering ceremony — established the alternative yokozuna ring-entering ceremony. The various subsequent unryu-style and shiranui-style yokozuna ring-entering ceremonies through subsequent decades have continued through subsequent years. Each yokozuna selects between the two styles upon promotion. The unryu style is currently more common, though both have continued through subsequent decades.

Meiji Restoration and the Modern Era

The Meiji Restoration (1868) transformed Japanese cultural traditions including sumo. The Meiji period sumo modernization established the modern professional sumo tradition. The 1871 Tokyo Sumo Association (Tokyo Sumo Kyokai) founding established the modern professional sumo organization. The 1909 Ryogoku Kokugikan opening at Ryogoku, Tokyo established the modern Tokyo sumo tradition. The various subsequent Ryogoku Kokugikan rebuilds (with the current Ryogoku Kokugikan opening in 1985) extended this tradition. The 1925 Crown Prince Hirohito (subsequently Emperor Showa) sumo cup donation extended the sumo imperial tradition. The 1927 establishment of the Japan Sumo Association (Nihon Sumo Kyokai), with the merger of the Tokyo Sumo Association and the Osaka Sumo Association, established the modern professional sumo organization. The 1929 establishment of the Yokozuna Deliberation Council extended the modern yokozuna licensing tradition. Subsequent yokozuna promotions have required Yokozuna Deliberation Council recommendation and Japan Sumo Association decision. The 1932 Tenryu Saburo and various other sumo wrestlers' strike (the 1932 Spring Revolution) shaped 1930s sumo. The strike was driven by wrestler frustrations with Japan Sumo Association governance and financial policies. Subsequent reforms gradually addressed wrestler concerns through the 1930s. The broader modernization period also established the modern weight class structure, scoring rules, and judging procedures that have continued through subsequent decades. The Japan Sumo Association's role as the principal Japanese sumo governing body has continued through subsequent decades.

Futabayama and the Pre-War Tradition

Futabayama Sadaji (1912-1968), the Japanese sumo wrestler from Oita Prefecture, produced one of the most extraordinary individual sumo careers in any era. Futabayama's 69-bout winning streak from January 1936 through January 1939 is widely regarded as the longest sumo winning streak in any era. Futabayama's 12 tournament championships across the 1936-1944 period established him as the principal sumo wrestler of the pre-World War Two era. Futabayama's 1937 yokozuna promotion (the 35th yokozuna in the yokozuna chronology) established the 1930s yokozuna tradition. The 1939 Futabayama's 70th-match defeat by Akinoumi Setsuo (the 37th yokozuna) established the pre-World War Two sumo cultural prominence. Akinoumi's victory over Futabayama was broadcast on radio across Japan and became one of the most famous moments in pre-war Japanese sport. The various pre-World War Two yokozuna include Tamanishiki San'emon (the 32nd yokozuna), Musashiyama Takeshi (the 33rd yokozuna), Minanogawa Tozo (the 34th yokozuna), Futabayama Sadaji (the 35th yokozuna), Haguroyama Masaji (the 36th yokozuna), and Akinoumi Setsuo (the 37th yokozuna). These yokozuna established the pre-World War Two yokozuna tradition. The 1944 Japan Sumo Association tournament continuation during World War Two (with the 1944 Tokyo Spring Tournament and 1944 Tokyo Autumn Tournament being held at the Ryogoku Kokugikan despite various World War Two restrictions) extended the sumo wartime tradition. The 1945 Tokyo Spring Tournament was held at the Tokyo Ryogoku Kokugikan in May 1945 with various Tokyo Air Raid-related tournament adjustments. The 1945 Tokyo Autumn Tournament was held at the Tokyo Meiji Shrine in November 1945 (the first sumo tournament outside the Ryogoku Kokugikan in any post-Edo era) due to Ryogoku Kokugikan air raid damage.

Taiho, the 1960s, and the Modern Stars

Taiho Koki (1940-2013), the Japanese sumo wrestler from Hokkaido (born Naya Koki), produced one of the most extraordinary individual sumo careers in any era. Taiho's 32 tournament championships across the 1960-1971 period established him as one of the principal sumo wrestlers of the 1960s. Taiho's 1961 yokozuna promotion (the 48th yokozuna in the yokozuna chronology) at age 21 (the youngest yokozuna in any post-World War Two era) established the 1960s yokozuna tradition. The 1960s sumo competitive era shaped the modern sumo tradition. The 1969 Tamanoumi Masahiro yokozuna promotion (the 51st yokozuna) and the subsequent 1971 Tamanoumi sudden death at age 27 shaped the 1970s sumo tradition. Kitanoumi Toshimitsu (1953-2015), the Japanese sumo wrestler from Hokkaido, produced extraordinary results across the 1970s. Kitanoumi's 24 tournament championships across the 1974-1984 period established him as one of the principal sumo wrestlers of the 1970s. Wakanohana Kanji I (1953-2022), the Japanese sumo wrestler from Aomori Prefecture, produced extraordinary results across the 1970s. The various 1970s yokozuna including Wajima Hiroshi (the 54th yokozuna), Kitanoumi Toshimitsu (the 55th yokozuna), Wakanohana Kanji I (the 56th yokozuna), Mienoumi Tsuyoshi (the 57th yokozuna), and Chiyonofuji Mitsugu (the 58th yokozuna) shaped the 1970s and 1980s sumo tradition. Chiyonofuji Mitsugu (1955-2016), the Japanese sumo wrestler from Hokkaido, produced one of the most extraordinary individual sumo careers in any era. Chiyonofuji's 31 tournament championships across the 1981-1991 period established him as one of the principal sumo wrestlers of the 1980s. The 1988-1989 Chiyonofuji 53-bout winning streak (the longest sumo winning streak in any post-Futabayama era) extended Chiyonofuji's legacy.

Akebono and the Hawaiian Era

Akebono Taro (Chad Rowan, 1969-2024), the Hawaiian-born sumo wrestler from Honolulu, produced one of the most extraordinary individual sumo careers in any era. Akebono's 1993 yokozuna promotion (the 64th yokozuna in the yokozuna chronology) established the broader foreign-born yokozuna tradition — Akebono was the first foreign-born yokozuna in any era. Akebono's 11 tournament championships across the 1992-2001 period established him as one of the principal sumo wrestlers of the 1990s. Various subsequent Hawaiian sumo wrestlers including Konishiki Yasokichi (the American Samoan-born sumo wrestler Salevaa Atisanoe, with the 1987 ozeki promotion, the first foreign-born ozeki in any era) and Musashimaru Koyo (the Hawaiian-born sumo wrestler from American Samoa Fiamalu Penitani, with the 1999 yokozuna promotion as the 67th yokozuna) extended the Hawaiian sumo tradition. Akebono's 2001 retirement at the Ryogoku Kokugikan extended the Hawaiian sumo legacy. Akebono's subsequent K-1 kickboxing and various MMA appearances through subsequent decades continued through subsequent years. The 2024 Akebono death from heart failure at age 54 produced extensive subsequent attention in Japan and Hawaii. Takanohana Koji (Hanada Koji, born 1972), the Japanese sumo wrestler from Tokyo, produced extraordinary results across the 1990s. Takanohana's 22 tournament championships across the 1992-2001 period established him as one of the principal sumo wrestlers of the 1990s. The 1995 Takanohana yokozuna promotion (the 65th yokozuna) established the 1990s yokozuna tradition. Wakanohana Masaru (Hanada Masaru, born 1971), Takanohana's older brother, produced extraordinary results across the 1990s. The 1998 Wakanohana yokozuna promotion (the 66th yokozuna) established the 1990s brothers yokozuna tradition. The Takanohana-Wakanohana brothers yokozuna era was the first time in any era that two brothers were simultaneously yokozuna. The 1999 Musashimaru yokozuna promotion (the 67th yokozuna) extended the foreign-born yokozuna tradition.

Hakuho and the Mongolian Yokozuna Era

Hakuho Sho (Mönkhbatyn Davaajargal, born 1985), the Mongolian-born sumo wrestler from Ulaanbaatar, produced one of the most extraordinary individual sumo careers in any era. Hakuho's 45 tournament championships through the 2007-2021 period established him as the principal sumo wrestler of any era, with the 45 tournament championships being the most by any sumo wrestler in any era (surpassing Taiho's 32 tournament championships record). Hakuho's 2007 yokozuna promotion (the 69th yokozuna in the yokozuna chronology) established the 2000s Mongolian yokozuna tradition. The 2021 Hakuho retirement at the Ryogoku Kokugikan extended Hakuho's legacy. Hakuho subsequently transitioned to a coaching role under his Japanese name Magaki, leading the Magaki stable. Asashoryu Akinori (Dolgorsuren Dagvadorj, born 1980), the Mongolian-born sumo wrestler from Ulaanbaatar, produced extraordinary results across the 2000s. Asashoryu's 25 tournament championships across the 2002-2010 period established him as one of the principal sumo wrestlers of the 2000s. The 2003 Asashoryu yokozuna promotion (the 68th yokozuna) established the Mongolian yokozuna tradition. The 2010 Asashoryu retirement following the 2010 Tokyo bar incident established broader yokozuna conduct expectations. Harumafuji Kohei (Davaanyamyn Byambadorj, born 1984), the Mongolian-born sumo wrestler from Ulaanbaatar, produced extraordinary results across the 2010s. The 2012 Harumafuji yokozuna promotion (the 70th yokozuna) established the 2010s Mongolian yokozuna tradition. The 2017 Harumafuji retirement following the Tokitenku assault incident shaped the 2010s sumo tradition. Kakuryu Rikisaburo (Mangaljalavyn Anand, born 1985), the Mongolian-born sumo wrestler from Sukhbaatar Province, produced extraordinary results across the 2010s. The 2014 Kakuryu yokozuna promotion (the 71st yokozuna) extended the 2010s Mongolian yokozuna tradition. The 2021 Kakuryu retirement extended the Mongolian yokozuna legacy. Various other modern Mongolian sumo wrestlers including Terunofuji Haruo (the Mongolian sumo wrestler with the 2021 yokozuna promotion as the 73rd yokozuna), Hoshoryu Tomokatsu (Asashoryu's nephew, with the 2023 ozeki promotion), and various others have extended the Mongolian sumo tradition through subsequent decades.

Yokozuna Tradition and Sumo Ranks

The yokozuna tradition is the principal sumo rank, with the yokozuna being the highest rank in any sumo era. Various sumo ranks include the makuuchi (top division) ranks of yokozuna, ozeki, sekiwake, komusubi, and maegashira (1 through 17 or 18). Various lower division ranks include the juryo, makushita, sandanme, jonidan, and jonokuchi. The yokozuna promotion is subject to the Yokozuna Deliberation Council recommendation and the Japan Sumo Association decision. The standard yokozuna promotion criteria include two consecutive tournament championships or equivalent competitive achievement. Yokozuna are expected to maintain dignified conduct both in and out of the ring. Various yokozuna ring-entering ceremonies (the unryu-style and the shiranui-style) have continued through subsequent decades. Various yokozuna ring-entering ceremony components include the chiri-chozu (purifying water), the shiko (leg-raising), the tegatana (hand-sword), and various other yokozuna ring-entering ceremony components. Various yokozuna subsequent retirement traditions through subsequent decades have continued through subsequent decades. The danpatsu-shiki (hair-cutting ceremony) marks the formal retirement of a sumo wrestler, with various dignitaries and family members making symbolic cuts to the wrestler's topknot. Various yokozuna subsequent oyakata (sumo elder) roles through subsequent decades have continued through subsequent decades. Sumo wrestling techniques (kimarite) include various recognized winning techniques across various categories including pushing (oshi-dashi, tsuki-dashi), throwing (uwatenage, shitatenage, ipponze-oi), tripping (sotogake, uchigake), grip and force (yorikiri, yorita-oshi), and various others. The Japan Sumo Association recognizes 82 official kimarite winning techniques.

The Sumo Tournaments and Modern Schedule

The six honbasho (grand tournaments) annual schedule has been held in odd-numbered months (January, March, May, July, September, November) through subsequent decades. Various honbasho venues include the Ryogoku Kokugikan in Tokyo (January, May, September), the Osaka Prefectural Gymnasium (March), the Aichi Prefectural Gymnasium in Nagoya (July), and the Fukuoka Kokusai Center (November). The honbasho lasts 15 days, with each makuuchi sumo wrestler competing in one bout per day across the 15 days. The sumo wrestler with the most wins at the end of the 15 days is the tournament champion. The Emperor's Cup is presented to the tournament champion at the senshuraku (closing day) ceremony of each honbasho. Various other honbasho ceremonies and traditions include the dohyo-iri (ring-entering ceremony), the yokozuna dohyo-iri (yokozuna ring-entering ceremony), the makuuchi senshuraku ceremony, and various other honbasho ceremonies. The dohyo (ring) itself is rebuilt before each tournament and ritually purified. Jungyo (regional tour) competitions held during the months between the honbasho extend sumo's cultural prominence across various Japanese prefectures. Various jungyo tours feature exhibition bouts and demonstrations rather than ranking-affecting competition. Various overseas sumo tours include the 1972 first overseas sumo tour (to the Soviet Union), the various subsequent overseas sumo tours to the United States, Mexico, Brazil, the United Kingdom, Germany, and various other countries. Various 2024 Japan Sumo Association overseas tours through subsequent years have continued through subsequent decades. NHK has been the principal sumo broadcast partner, with daily coverage of each honbasho through Japanese television and increasingly through international streaming services.

Sumo Culture and the Modern Era

Sumo culture extends substantially beyond the competitive sumo tradition. Various sumo cultural traditions include the sumo stable (heya) tradition, the sumo wrestler (rikishi) traditions, the sumo elder (oyakata) traditions, and various other sumo cultural traditions. The sumo stable (heya) tradition is the principal sumo training tradition. Wrestlers live communally in their assigned stable, training together, eating together, and following a strict daily schedule. Various sumo stables (heya) include the Sadogatake Heya, the Isegahama Heya, the Miyagino Heya, the Takanohana Heya, the Saenchai Muaythaigym, the various Phuket and Chiang Mai Muay Thai gyms, and various others have continued through subsequent decades. The sumo wrestler (rikishi) traditions include various daily training routines, various dietary traditions (with chankonabe sumo wrestler stew being the principal sumo wrestler diet), the topknot hairstyle (chonmage), and various other rikishi traditions. The chankonabe sumo wrestler stew tradition has extended beyond the sumo wrestling tradition through various chankonabe restaurants across Japanese cities including Tokyo's Ryogoku district. Various yokozuna danpatsu-shiki (hair-cutting ceremony) traditions have continued through subsequent decades. Various retired sumo wrestler oyakata roles through subsequent decades have continued through subsequent decades. The Japan Sumo Association maintains a limited number of toshiyori (elder) name licenses that retired wrestlers must acquire to remain in the sport as coaches and administrators. The 2010 sumo match-fixing scandal shaped the 2010s sumo tradition. The Japan Sumo Association cancelled the March 2011 Osaka tournament — the first sumo tournament cancellation since 1946 — following the match-fixing investigation. Various subsequent sumo integrity reforms through subsequent decades have continued through subsequent decades. Various subsequent sumo gender exclusion tradition (with the female ban from the dohyo) has continued to be subject to cultural and political discussions through subsequent decades.

The Future of Sumo, Conclusion, and Sources

The future of sumo wrestling faces a series of significant questions in the third decade of the twenty-first century. The continued Japan Sumo Association governance development, the continued sumo cultural traditions, the continued foreign-born sumo wrestler participation, the continued sumo integrity reforms, the continued sumo medical reforms, and various other sumo developments will all continue to shape the sumo tradition. The continued Japan Sumo Association governance development will continue through subsequent decades. Various subsequent Japan Sumo Association governance reforms, sumo elder (oyakata) developments, sumo stable (heya) developments, and various other governance developments will continue through subsequent decades. The continued foreign-born sumo wrestler participation will continue through subsequent decades. Various subsequent Mongolian, Hawaiian, Eastern European, Bulgarian, Russian, Brazilian, and various other foreign-born sumo wrestler participation will continue through subsequent decades. The Japan Sumo Association currently limits foreign wrestlers to one per stable, which has shaped recruitment patterns through subsequent decades. Various subsequent sumo integrity reforms will continue through subsequent decades. Various subsequent sumo gambling restrictions, match-fixing prevention measures, cultural conduct expectations, and various other integrity reforms will continue through subsequent decades. Individual sumo figures will continue to shape the sumo tradition. The continued careers of Terunofuji Haruo (the 73rd yokozuna), Onosato Daiki (the emerging Japanese sumo wrestler), Hoshoryu Tomokatsu (the Mongolian sumo wrestler and Asashoryu's nephew), Kotonowaka Masahiro, Wakatakakage Atsushi, Takerufuji Mikiya, Atamifuji Sakutaro, and many others will continue to shape the sumo legacy. Sumo will continue to evolve. The continued Japan Sumo Association governance development, the continued sumo cultural traditions, the continued foreign-born sumo wrestler participation, the continued sumo integrity reforms, the continued sumo medical reforms, the continued sumo broadcast development, and various other changes will all continue to shape the sumo landscape through subsequent decades. Yet the basic principle of sumo wrestling — the fundamental Shinto-rooted athletic activity of competitive Japanese wrestling that has underpinned the Japanese cultural tradition for centuries — shows no sign of fading. Sources include: Mark Schilling, Sumo: A Pocket Guide (Tuttle, 1994); Lora Sharnoff, Grand Sumo: The Living Sport and Tradition (Weatherhill, 1989); Andrew Adams, Sumo: From Rite to Sport (Weatherhill, 1986); Hiroshi Wajima, Sumo: The Art of Japanese Sumo Wrestling (Tuttle, 1989); David Benjamin, Sumo: A Thinking Fan's Guide to Japan's National Sport (Tuttle, 1991); Doreen Simmons and various authors, Sumo World magazine (various editions, defunct); BBC Sport coverage, bbc.co.uk/sport (records and archives); Japan Sumo Association archives, sumo.or.jp (results and records); NHK Sumo broadcast archives (records); Sumo Reference archives, sumodb.sumogames.de (records and statistics).