History of the Marathon and the World Marathon Majors

Introduction

The marathon is the longest of the standard Olympic running distances and one of the most culturally significant individual sporting events in the world. The standard marathon distance of 42.195 kilometers (26.2 miles) has been contested by professional and amateur runners since the 1896 Athens Olympic Games, when the inaugural modern Olympic marathon was won by the Greek shepherd Spyridon Louis. The distance has been standardized at exactly 42.195 kilometers since 1921, the standardization having emerged from the 1908 London Olympic marathon course that had been measured at 26 miles and 385 yards.

The World Marathon Majors (WMM) is the principal international championship structure for elite professional marathon running. The series consists of six major annual marathons: the Boston Marathon (founded 1897, contested every April), the New York City Marathon (founded 1970, contested every November), the Chicago Marathon (founded 1977, contested every October), the Berlin Marathon (founded 1974, contested every September), the London Marathon (founded 1981, contested every April), and the Tokyo Marathon (founded 2007, contested every March). The series was established in 2006 with the original five majors and expanded to include Tokyo in 2013. The various WMM races collectively attract more than 250,000 elite and amateur runners each year, with the various race fields including Olympic and World Championships medalists, world record holders, and various aspiring elite runners.

This article surveys the full history of the marathon from the legendary 490 BCE run by the Athenian messenger Pheidippides through the 1896 Athens Olympic inaugural modern marathon, the 1908 London standardization of the 26.2-mile distance, the various early twentieth-century marathon traditions, the founding of the six World Marathon Majors and their gradual establishment as the elite marathon championship structure, the substantial East African dominance of marathon running through the modern era, the brilliant Eliud Kipchoge career and his historic 2019 sub-two-hour run in Vienna (and his official world record progression), the parallel development of women's marathon running, the recent women's world records by Brigid Kosgei and Tigist Assefa, the substantial wheelchair marathon competition, and the modern economics and broader cultural significance of marathon running.

Ancient Origins and Modern Revival

The marathon takes its name from the Battle of Marathon, fought in 490 BCE between Greek forces (primarily Athenian, with substantial Plataean assistance) and a Persian invasion army under King Darius I. According to the legendary account, the Athenian messenger Pheidippides (sometimes called Philippides in various sources) ran from the Marathon battlefield to Athens (approximately 40 kilometers) to announce the Greek victory, then collapsed and died upon delivering the message. The actual historical accuracy of this account has been substantially disputed by classical historians, with various accounts indicating that Pheidippides had actually run from Athens to Sparta (approximately 246 kilometers) to request Spartan military assistance before the battle.

The modern marathon was created for the 1896 Athens Olympic Games as a deliberate commemoration of the Pheidippides legend. The French scholar Michel Bréal proposed the marathon race to Pierre de Coubertin, the founder of the modern Olympics, as a deliberate connection between the modern Games and ancient Greek tradition. The proposed marathon would follow the historical route from Marathon to Athens, approximately 40 kilometers in distance. The proposal was accepted by the International Olympic Committee, and the 1896 marathon was contested over the historical route on April 10, 1896.

The inaugural 1896 Athens Olympic marathon was won by Spyridon Louis, a Greek water carrier and shepherd from the village of Maroussi (north of Athens). Louis completed the approximately 40-kilometer course in 2 hours, 58 minutes, 50 seconds. The Greek victory in the marathon was substantially celebrated across Greece, with the substantial national pride producing extraordinary cultural attention. Louis became one of the most marketed individual sporting figures of the early modern Olympic era, receiving substantial subsequent gifts and honors. His Olympic gold medal has been one of the most celebrated single individual sporting moments in Greek history.

The standardization of the marathon distance to 42.195 kilometers occurred substantially through the 1908 London Olympic Games. The original 1908 marathon course had been planned at 25 miles, but the British royal family had requested various course modifications to allow the race to start at Windsor Castle and finish at the Olympic Stadium near the royal box. The various course modifications produced a final distance of 26 miles and 385 yards (42.195 kilometers). The substantial subsequent acceptance of this distance as the standard marathon distance was confirmed by the International Amateur Athletic Federation in 1921, with the various subsequent marathon races contested over the 42.195-kilometer distance ever since.

The Six World Marathon Majors

The Boston Marathon is the oldest of the six World Marathon Majors and the second-oldest continuously held road race in the world (after the Stadtbestigung in Hannover, Germany). The Boston Marathon was first contested on April 19, 1897, with John J. McDermott winning the inaugural race in 2 hours, 55 minutes, 10 seconds. The race has been contested annually every April (with the exception of 1918 due to World War I), with the various subsequent winners producing extraordinary individual marathon careers. The various legendary Boston Marathon winners include Clarence DeMar (the brilliant American runner who won the race seven times between 1911 and 1930), Bill Rodgers (the brilliant American runner who won the race four times in the late 1970s), Robert de Castella (the brilliant Australian runner), and various others.

The 2013 Boston Marathon bombing on April 15, 2013 produced one of the most consequential terrorist attacks at any individual sporting event. Two improvised explosive devices detonated near the finish line of the race, killing three spectators and substantially injuring more than 264 others. The various subsequent law enforcement investigations identified the Tsarnaev brothers as the perpetrators, with substantial subsequent legal proceedings producing convictions and sentences. The 2014 Boston Marathon, contested as the first race after the bombing, produced extraordinary subsequent cultural attention.

The New York City Marathon was first contested in 1970 with 127 runners competing in a small race around Central Park. The race has subsequently grown into one of the largest marathon races in the world, with approximately 50,000 runners competing in the modern edition. The race course was substantially modified in 1976 to traverse all five boroughs of New York City (Staten Island, Brooklyn, Queens, the Bronx, and Manhattan), with the substantial New York City touristic value of the course producing one of the most distinctive marathon experiences. The various NYC Marathon winners have included multiple brilliant individual runners across both the elite and various other categories.

The Chicago Marathon was first contested in 1977 with 4,200 runners. The race has subsequently grown into one of the principal World Marathon Majors, with various subsequent winners producing extraordinary individual performances. The various Chicago Marathon course records have been substantially competitive with the various other World Marathon Majors. The 2023 Chicago Marathon produced the men's world record of Kelvin Kiptum (2:00:35), which was subsequently equaled and broken by various subsequent races. Tigist Assefa's 2:11:53 in the 2023 women's race set the women's world record.

The Berlin Marathon was first contested in 1974 with substantial subsequent growth. The race's substantially flat course has produced numerous world record marathon performances, with various world record holders including Patrick Makau (2011), Wilson Kipsang (2013), Dennis Kimetto (2014), Eliud Kipchoge (multiple including 2018 and 2022), and Tigist Assefa (women's record holder for the women's-only race, 2:11:53 in 2023). Kipchoge's 2022 Berlin Marathon time of 2:01:09 was the men's world record from 2022 until the subsequent record progression. The 2024 men's record holder Kelvin Kiptum's 2:00:35 (at Chicago 2023) has been substantially significant.

The London Marathon was first contested in 1981 with substantial subsequent growth into one of the principal World Marathon Majors. The various London Marathon winners have included multiple brilliant individual runners. The Tokyo Marathon was first contested in 2007 and was added to the World Marathon Majors series in 2013, with substantial subsequent recognition as one of the principal elite marathon races.

East African Dominance

Marathon running has been substantially dominated by East African runners, primarily from Kenya and Ethiopia, throughout the modern era of professional marathon competition. The substantial East African dominance has produced extraordinary individual performances and has substantially shaped the broader marathon competitive landscape. The various Kenyan and Ethiopian runners have held the men's marathon world record continuously since 2003 (with Paul Tergat's 2003 Berlin Marathon victory in 2:04:55 being the first sub-2:05 marathon), and the Kenyan and Ethiopian runners have held the women's marathon world record continuously since 2003 (with Paula Radcliffe's 2003 London Marathon performance of 2:15:25 being the first sub-2:16 women's marathon).

The Kenyan marathon tradition has been substantially centered in the Rift Valley region, particularly around the towns of Eldoret, Iten, and various other Rift Valley communities. The substantial high-altitude training environment (with the various Rift Valley towns located at approximately 2,400 meters above sea level), the substantial cultural emphasis on running, and the various other contributing factors have produced extraordinary individual Kenyan runners. The various Kenyan marathon champions include Paul Tergat, Sammy Wanjiru (Olympic gold medalist 2008), Eliud Kipchoge (multiple Olympic gold medalist and former marathon world record holder), Wilson Kipsang, Patrick Makau, Geoffrey Mutai, Kelvin Kiptum (the current men's marathon world record holder before his February 2024 death in an automobile accident), and various others.

The Ethiopian marathon tradition has been similarly substantial, with the various Ethiopian high-altitude regions (particularly around Addis Ababa and Bekoji) producing extraordinary individual runners. The various Ethiopian marathon champions include Haile Gebrselassie (the brilliant Ethiopian runner who won two Olympic gold medals in the 10,000 meters and set various world records in distance running), Tirunesh Dibaba (multiple Olympic gold medalist in long-distance track running), Tigist Assefa (the current women's marathon world record holder with her 2:11:53 in Berlin 2023), Letesenbet Gidey, and various others.

The broader East African dominance has produced substantial cultural attention. The various subsequent investigations into the substantial factors contributing to East African dominance (including the high-altitude training environment, the substantial cultural emphasis on running, the various genetic factors, the various training methodologies, and various other factors) have produced extensive subsequent attention. The various subsequent attempts by various other countries to develop competitive marathon programs have produced occasional successes but have not substantially challenged the East African dominance.

The substantial economic dimensions of East African marathon running have been substantial. The various Kenyan and Ethiopian runners have produced extraordinary individual prize money earnings through the various marathon races, with the various WMM prize money structures producing substantial individual rewards. The various subsequent economic developments in the various Rift Valley communities (with various former Kenyan marathon champions investing substantially in local infrastructure, education, and various other development activities) have produced substantial subsequent attention.

Eliud Kipchoge and the Sub-Two-Hour Barrier

Eliud Kipchoge has been the most accomplished individual marathon runner in the history of the sport. Kipchoge, born in 1984 in Kapsisiywa, Kenya, has won multiple Olympic gold medals (2016 Rio, 2020 Tokyo) and produced multiple WMM victories across his career. His career marathon record includes 10 WMM victories (a record), the previous men's marathon world record of 2:01:09 (set at Berlin Marathon 2022), and various other extraordinary achievements. He has been widely cited as the greatest marathon runner of any era.

Kipchoge's substantial campaign to break the sub-two-hour marathon barrier produced one of the most extraordinary individual sporting events of the modern era. The various sub-two-hour marathon attempts had been the subject of substantial subsequent attention through the 2010s, with the substantial physiological challenge of the goal producing extensive subsequent scientific discussion. Kipchoge's first sub-two-hour attempt, the Nike Breaking2 project at the Monza Formula 1 circuit on May 6, 2017, produced a time of 2:00:25 — extraordinarily close to but not under the two-hour barrier. The Monza attempt did not count as an official marathon time because of the substantial use of pacing teams in a non-standard format.

Kipchoge's successful sub-two-hour marathon attempt was the INEOS 1:59 Challenge on October 12, 2019 at the Prater Park in Vienna, Austria. The attempt was conducted under substantially controlled conditions including various pacing teams (approximately 42 pacers rotating throughout the race), a flat course on closed roads, and various other supportive conditions. Kipchoge completed the marathon distance in 1 hour, 59 minutes, 40.2 seconds, becoming the first human being to run 42.195 kilometers in under two hours. The substantial sub-two-hour achievement did not count as an official marathon world record because of the various non-standard conditions, but the achievement has been widely cited as one of the most extraordinary individual sporting achievements in modern athletic history.

The broader sub-two-hour barrier has been substantially significant in marathon discussion. The various subsequent attempts to break the barrier under standard official conditions have continued to produce substantial subsequent attention. The various official world records (with Kelvin Kiptum's 2023 Chicago Marathon time of 2:00:35 being the most recent men's record) have continued to approach the two-hour barrier. The continued substantial scientific and cultural discussion of the sub-two-hour barrier has continued to shape the broader marathon discussion.

Kipchoge's broader cultural impact has been substantial. His various subsequent appearances at the World Marathon Majors races have continued to produce substantial subsequent attention. The substantial cultural celebration of his career within Kenya has produced extraordinary cultural attention. The various subsequent generations of Kenyan and Ethiopian marathon runners have continued the substantial East African dominance that Kipchoge has substantially shaped through his career.

Women's Marathon Running

Women's marathon running has substantially expanded across the past five decades. The women's Olympic marathon was first contested at the 1984 Los Angeles Olympics, when American Joan Benoit Samuelson won the inaugural Olympic women's marathon in 2:24:52. The substantial subsequent expansion of women's marathon running has produced extraordinary individual women's marathon careers and has substantially shaped the broader marathon competitive landscape.

The early women's marathon tradition was substantially complicated by various institutional restrictions. Women had been substantially prohibited from competing in marathons by various national athletics federations through the early 1960s, with the various women's running events at Olympic and World Championship levels having been substantially restricted to shorter distances. The various women's marathon pioneers including Kathrine Switzer (who famously ran the 1967 Boston Marathon as a registered female runner despite the substantial subsequent attempts by various race officials to remove her from the course), Bobbi Gibb (who had run the 1966 Boston Marathon unofficially as the first woman to complete the Boston Marathon course), and various others substantially shaped the broader women's marathon institutional development.

The substantial expansion of women's marathon running through the 1970s and 1980s produced gradually but substantially the broader institutional acceptance of women's marathon competition. The 1972 Boston Marathon was the first Boston Marathon to officially accept women's entries. The 1984 Los Angeles Olympics included the inaugural women's Olympic marathon. The various subsequent expansions have produced the modern women's marathon tradition with substantial competitive depth and substantial commercial significance.

The brilliant individual women's marathon runners have included Joan Benoit Samuelson (the inaugural 1984 Olympic women's marathon gold medalist), Grete Waitz (the brilliant Norwegian runner who won nine New York City Marathons between 1978 and 1988), Rosa Mota (the brilliant Portuguese runner who won the 1988 Seoul Olympic women's marathon), Tegla Loroupe (the brilliant Kenyan runner who held the women's marathon world record at various points), Paula Radcliffe (the brilliant British runner who held the women's marathon world record for 16 years with her 2003 London Marathon time of 2:15:25, before Brigid Kosgei finally broke the record in 2019), Brigid Kosgei (the brilliant Kenyan runner whose 2019 Chicago Marathon time of 2:14:04 was the women's marathon world record until Tigist Assefa broke it in 2023), Tigist Assefa (the brilliant Ethiopian runner whose 2023 Berlin Marathon time of 2:11:53 is the current women's marathon world record), Mary Keitany, Florence Kiplagat, Catherine Ndereba, and various others.

The broader women's marathon competitive infrastructure has continued to expand. The various WMM races have continued to provide substantial prize money for women's elite runners, with the various subsequent commercial sponsorships substantially expanding the broader women's marathon commercial structure. The various continued substantial gender equity initiatives in marathon running have continued to shape the broader institutional development. The continued substantial East African dominance of women's marathon running has paralleled the substantial dominance in men's marathon running.

Modern Era, Economics, and Conclusion

The economic scale of modern World Marathon Majors competition has been substantial. The various WMM races collectively generate approximately 300 million dollars in annual revenue through the various race entry fees, the various sponsorship deals, the various broadcasting partnerships, and various other commercial activities. The various individual WMM races including Boston, New York, Chicago, Berlin, London, and Tokyo collectively attract more than 250,000 runners annually and produce more than 1 billion dollars in total annual economic impact for the various host cities.

The elite prize money for the various WMM races has been substantial. The various WMM race winners typically receive approximately 50,000 dollars for the individual race victory, with the various WMM series final standings producing additional substantial prize money. The various world record bonuses paid by the WMM races and by the various running shoe sponsorships have produced substantial additional income for the various world record holders. The various elite running shoe sponsorships with brands including Nike, Adidas, ASICS, Hoka, and various others have produced substantial additional income for the various elite runners.

The broader cultural significance of marathon running has continued to develop. The various substantial growth of charitable fundraising through the various WMM races (with the various marathon participants typically raising substantial amounts for various charitable causes) has produced substantial broader cultural significance. The various ongoing substantial growth of amateur marathon participation has produced one of the largest individual sporting participation traditions in the world.

Marathon running will continue to evolve. The continued substantial East African dominance, the continued substantial growth of women's marathon competition, the continued substantial commercial expansion of the various WMM races, the various continued world record progressions, and various other changes will all continue to shape the broader marathon competitive landscape through subsequent decades. Yet the basic appeal of marathon running — the substantial individual physical challenge of completing 42.195 kilometers, the substantial cultural significance of the various WMM races, the substantial commercial structure of professional marathon competition, and the substantial broader running culture that the marathon tradition has supported — has now lasted for more than 125 years since the 1896 Athens Olympic inaugural and shows no sign of fading. The marathon remains one of the great cultural institutions of the modern world.

The basic appeal of the marathon — the combination of individual physical challenge, the substantial historical continuity from ancient Greek origins, the substantial cultural significance of the major races, and the substantial competitive intensity of elite professional running — has now shaped the broader running tradition for more than a century. The marathon will continue to be one of the principal individual sporting events of each calendar year, with the various WMM races continuing to produce substantial subsequent attention. The continued substantial growth of marathon running globally will continue to shape the broader competitive landscape.

Wheelchair Marathon Competition

Wheelchair marathon racing has developed alongside the standard marathon competition since the late 1970s, with the various World Marathon Majors all including substantial wheelchair divisions in their modern formats. The wheelchair marathon racers use specially designed racing wheelchairs with low-mounted seats, three wheels (one front, two rear), and aerodynamic cowlings, producing race times that are substantially faster than running marathon times — the men's wheelchair marathon world record is 1:17:47 (set by Tomoki Suzuki of Japan at the 2024 Oita Marathon), substantially faster than any human running time.

The Boston Marathon was the first major marathon to officially include a wheelchair division, with the 1975 Boston Marathon featuring the first official wheelchair competitor in Bob Hall. Hall completed the course in 2:58, with the substantial subsequent Boston Marathon wheelchair division producing one of the principal annual wheelchair sporting events. The various subsequent World Marathon Majors progressively added wheelchair divisions through the late 1970s and 1980s.

The substantial wheelchair marathon tradition has been dominated by various brilliant individual athletes. The Swiss racer Marcel Hug has been the principal individual men's wheelchair marathoner of the modern era, winning more than 30 individual major marathon victories across his career including multiple victories at all six World Marathon Majors. The American Tatyana McFadden has been the principal individual women's wheelchair marathoner of the modern era, winning 24 World Marathon Major victories across her career including consecutive Grand Slams (winning all four spring-and-fall major marathons in the same year) in 2013, 2014, 2015, and 2016. The various other brilliant wheelchair marathoners including Ernst van Dyk of South Africa (winning the Boston Marathon wheelchair division 10 times between 2001 and 2014), Kurt Fearnley of Australia, Heinz Frei of Switzerland (with substantial Paralympic gold medals), and various others have continued the broader wheelchair marathon tradition.

The Paralympic marathon, contested at every Summer Paralympic Games since the 1984 New York/Stoke Mandeville Paralympics (jointly held following the substantial 1980 boycott), has continued to provide the substantial principal international wheelchair marathon championship. The various Paralympic marathon champions including Tatyana McFadden (gold medalist at 2012 London, 2016 Rio, and 2020 Tokyo Paralympics), Marcel Hug (with substantial multiple Paralympic medals), Heinz Frei, and various others have produced extraordinary individual careers.

The broader institutional support for wheelchair marathon racing has continued to develop. The substantial prize money for the various World Marathon Major wheelchair divisions has gradually approached that of the running divisions, though substantial parity has not yet been achieved. The substantial various subsequent broadcasting partnerships have continued to expand the broader wheelchair marathon visibility. The continued substantial development of racing wheelchair technology has continued to produce improved individual performances.

Iconic Marathon Moments

The marathon has produced numerous individual moments that have entered the cultural memory of the sport. The 1908 London Olympic marathon collapse of the Italian runner Dorando Pietri at the entrance to the Olympic stadium, with the Italian being helped across the finish line by sympathetic officials before being disqualified, has been one of the most reproduced individual sporting moments of the early modern Olympic era. The substantial Pietri subsequent professional career, including various exhibition races against various American competitors, produced substantial subsequent cultural attention.

The 1967 Boston Marathon contested registration of Kathrine Switzer as an officially registered female competitor produced one of the most famous moments in the broader women's running tradition. The Boston Marathon official Jock Semple attempted to physically remove Switzer from the course during the race, with the substantial subsequent photograph of Semple grabbing Switzer producing one of the most reproduced photographs in any sport. Switzer completed the marathon in approximately 4:20, with her subsequent advocacy for women's running substantially shaping the broader subsequent women's marathon tradition.

The 1981 New York City Marathon victory of Allison Roe of New Zealand in 2:25:29 was one of the most consequential individual women's marathon performances. Roe's time was substantially faster than the previous world record by approximately three minutes, with the substantial subsequent celebration substantially establishing the broader women's marathon competitive structure. The substantial Roe career was substantially limited by recurring injuries through the 1980s.

The 1982 Boston Marathon men's race produced one of the most extraordinary individual marathon duels in any era. The American Alberto Salazar and the American Dick Beardsley raced together throughout the entire course, with Salazar finally winning by approximately two seconds in 2:08:52 to Beardsley's 2:08:54. The substantial "Duel in the Sun" has been the subject of substantial subsequent attention including the 2006 book by John Brant of the same title.

The 2011 Boston Marathon men's race produced the substantial Geoffrey Mutai winning time of 2:03:02, which would have been the world record but was not recognized as such because of the substantial Boston Marathon course's substantial elevation drop (approximately 140 meters from start to finish) and substantial point-to-point format that does not comply with the substantial IAAF/World Athletics world record course requirements. The substantial Mutai time substantially demonstrated the broader marathon performance ceiling that was being approached during the period.

The 2013 Boston Marathon bombing on April 15, 2013 produced one of the most consequential terrorist attacks at any individual sporting event. Two improvised explosive devices detonated near the finish line of the race, killing three spectators and injuring more than 264 others. The substantial subsequent law enforcement investigations identified the Tsarnaev brothers as the perpetrators. The substantial 2014 Boston Marathon, contested as the first race after the bombing, produced substantial extraordinary cultural attention and substantial American emotional outpouring, with substantial Meb Keflezighi becoming the first American to win the Boston Marathon men's race in 31 years.

The 2019 Brigid Kosgei world record performance at the Chicago Marathon (2:14:04) finally broke Paula Radcliffe's previous women's marathon world record of 2:15:25 that had stood for 16 years. The substantial Kosgei record stood for approximately four years until Tigist Assefa's 2023 Berlin Marathon time of 2:11:53 substantially surpassed it. The substantial subsequent women's marathon world record progression continues to substantially exceed historical expectations.

The substantial 2024 Paris Olympic marathon contested the substantial men's and women's marathons over the substantial historical route through Paris and Versailles. The substantial men's marathon was won by Tamirat Tola of Ethiopia in 2:06:26 (an Olympic record), while the substantial women's marathon was won by Sifan Hassan of the Netherlands in 2:22:55 (substantially impressive given Hassan had also won bronze medals in the 5,000-meter and 10,000-meter track events at the same Olympics).

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