Glossary — M

Glossary terms beginning with M.

Maastricht Treaty: See Treaty on European Union.
machine tractor stations: State organizations that owned the major equipment needed by farmers and obtained the agricultural products from collectivized farms. First developed in the Soviet Union and adopted by Albania during the regime of Enver Hoxha.; Source: Library of Congress
machismo: Literally, maleness. Complex of beliefs and attitudes defining the concept of masculinity.; Source: Library of Congress
madraseh: A religious college or seminary that trains men in Islamic jurisprudence.
Maghrib: The western Islamic world (northwest Africa); distinguished from the Mashriq, or eastern Islamic world (the Middle East). Literally, ""the time and place of the sunset--the west."" For its Arab conquerors, the region was the ""island of the west"" (jazirat al maghrib), the land between the ""sea of sand"" (the Sahara) and the Mediterranean Sea. Traditionally includes Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and Tripolitania (in Libya); more recently some sources have treated Mauritania as part of the region. Also transliterated as Maghreb.; Source: Library of Congress
Maghrib (adj. Maghribian): The western Islamic world (northwest Africa); distinguished from the Mashriq or eastern Islamic world (the Middle East). Traditionally includes Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and what is now Libya. Literally, ""the time or place of the sunset--the west."" For its Arab conquerors, the region was the ""island of the west"" (jazirat al maghrib), the land between the ""sea of sand"" (Sahara) and the Mediterranean Sea. Also translated as Maghreb.
maha: Greater monsoon--the main growing season under rain-fed conditions for paddy (rice) and most other annual crops. Sowing is between August and October, depending on the time of the monsoon, and the crop is harvested five to six months later.
Mahdi: According to the Islamic tradition, the messianic guide who will rise up to lead the faithful to salvation in anticipation of the last day. Historically a religious leader who is recognized as the Mahdi of tradition by his followers and assumes a messianic role in order to unify Islam and institute a reign of virtue. Literally, the ""enlightened"" or ""divinely guided one.""
mahriyeh: An agreed upon amount of money and/or property that a groom provides his bride as specified in the marriage contract.
Majlis: the term is used in two senses: the legislative body of imperial Iran, which included both a senate--composed of members appointed by the shah and elected members--and an elected lower house of representatives; and, the lower house alone. The Senate provided for in the constitution did not come into existence until 1950; the Senate was dissolved under Mossadeq but was revived later. Khomeini’s revolutionary Constitution of 1979 eliminated the Senate, leaving only the lower house, or Majlis, in existence.
maktab: Primary school operated by Shia clergy.
Malagasy franc (FMG): 1 Malagasy franc (franc malgache-FMG) = 100 centimes; in May 1995 US$1.00 = FMG4,236.9.
Malayan Communist Party (MCP): See Communist Party of Malaya.
Maliki: Named for Malik ibn Anas (ca. 710-95), a leading jurist from Medina. The Maliki school is one of four major legal schools in Sunni (q.v.) Islam, which recorded the Medina consensus of opinion, using tradition as a guide.; Source: Library of Congress
manat: National currency of Azerbaijan. Introduced in mid-1992 for use concurrent with the ruble; became sole official currency in January 1994.; Source: Library of Congress
Manchuria: The present-day northeast Chinese provinces of Heilongjiang, Jilin, and Liaoning; homeland of the Manchus, founders of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911). Known as Manchukuo during the period of Japanese control (1931-45).
Mandal Commission: A government-appointed commission, officially the Second Backwards Classes Commission, chaired by former member of Parliament Bindhyeshwari Prasad Mandal from December 1978 to December 1980. Of the five members, four were from Backward Classes (q.v.) and one was from a Scheduled Caste (q.v.). The commission’s controversial December 1980 report (the Mandal Commission Report of the Backward Classes Commission) called for reserving 27 percent of all services and public-sector undertakings under the central government and 27 percent of all admissions to institutions of higher education (except in states that have reserved higher percentages) for Backward Class members and Dalits (q.v.). In August 1990, Prime Minister Vishwanath Pratap Singh announced his support for the radical affirmative-action 1980 proposals. The First Backward Classes Commission existed from January 1950 to March 1955.
mandala: Indian geopolitical term referring to a variable circle of power centered on a ruler, his palace, and the religious center from which he drew his legitimization.
Manichaeism: A dualistic religious movement founded in Persia, third century A.D., incorporating elements of Christianity and Iranian and Indian religions.
Mao Zedong Thought: Sayings and writings of Mao that served as a major source of national ideology until his death in 1976 and since then have undergone a cautious but critical reappraisal. By 1980 the meaning of the term had expanded to include the collective thoughts of all key party leaders.
maquiladoras: Assembly plants that are also called ""in-bond"" industries. Established by Mexico’s Border Industrialization Program during the mid-1960s to absorb the unemployed along the border with the United States following the termination of the bracero (migrant Mexican worker) program between the United States and Mexico in 1964. Machinery, equipment, and components were initially allowed to be imported duty-free for processing or assembly within a twenty-kilometer strip along the border as long as all the imported products were subsequently reexported. Later legislation permitted the establishment of in-bond industries anywhere in Mexico except Mexico City, Guadalajara, and Monterrey. End-product output from the assembly operations of the in-bond industries cannot be sold within Mexico.
marabout: In West Africa, a Muslim prayer leader, teacher, and sometimes a healer who is venerated locally and believed to be touched by divine grace, which sometimes conferred the right to rule as well. Frequently called upon to arbitrate disputes. Translation of al murabitun (those who have made a religious retreat). In some locales, the title became the monopoly of certain families, who thus formed maraboutic castes.
marginality: A concept used to explain the poor political, economic, and social conditions of individuals within a society, social classes within a nation, or nations within the larger world community. Refers often to poverty-stricken groups left behind in the modernization process. They are not integrated into the socioeconomic system, and their relative poverty increases. Marginality is sometimes referred to as dualism or the dual-society thesis.; Source: Library of Congress
Maronites: The largest Christian sect in Lebanon, the Maronite Church is one of a group of Christian churches known as Uniate, which are in full communion with the Holy See in Rome but are separately organized and adhere to an Eastern rite. Maronites settled in the mountains of northern Lebanon in the mid-seventh century; many continue to live there and in East Beirut. Maronites traditionally have looked to the West for cultural inspiration. Maronites tend to be better educated and wealthier than other segments of Lebanese society. By custom, the president of the republic is a Maronite.
Marshall Plan: In full the European Recovery Program, a United States- sponsored program to rehabilitate European nations after World War II and prevent communist subversion of countries weakened by war.; Source: Library of Congress
Marxism-Leninism/Marxist-Leninist: The ideology of communism, developed by Karl Marx and refined and adapted to social and economic conditions in Russia by Lenin, which guided the communist parties of many countries including Albania and the Soviet Union. Marx talked of the establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat after the overthrow of the bourgeoisie as a transitional socialist phase before the achievement of communism. Lenin added the idea of a communist party as the vanguard or leading force in promoting the proletarian revolution and building communism. Stalin and subsequent East European leaders, including Enver Hoxha, contributed their own interpretations of the ideology.; Source: Library of Congress
Marxism/Marxist: The economic, political, and social theories of Karl Marx, a nineteenth-century German philosopher and socialist, especially his concept of socialism (q.v.).
Mashriq: Eastern Islamic world, as distinct from the Maghrib (q.v.). Also transliterated as Machrek.
mass line: Term for party policy aimed at broadening and cultivating contacts with the masses of the people and to accentuate the leadership role of the Chinese Communist Party.
mass movement: Derived from the concept of ""mass line"" (q.v.). Party- directed campaign designed to mobilize the masses in support or execution of major policies. Such movements were characteristic of the 1950s through the 1970s and were controlled and coordinated by permanent mass organizations.
Mauretania: Classical name for the ancient Berber kingdom in the northwest African and Roman provinces that succeeded it. Cited in some sources as Mauritania but not to be confused with the modern Islamic Republic of Mauritania.
Mauritanian Kadihine Party: Clandestine leftist political party compromised primarily of Mauritanian’s proletariat and other low-wage workers. The party was formed in 1973 after the Mauritanian People’s Party, Mauritania’s sole political party, absorbed the country’s previously independent trade union. Literally kadihine means ""the oppressed"" or ""downtrodden.""
Mauritian rupee (MauR): 1 Mauritian rupee = 100 cents; in August 1995 US$1.00 = MauR14.43.
mayorazgo: Colonial system whereby the elder son inherited the titles and properties of the family.
mayordomos: Special officials in colonial Peru appointed, sometimes under threat of physical punishment for refusal, for important celebrations. Their duties included making sure the priest’s pay was available and making up shortages out of their personal patrimony.
medina: Arabic for town or city; used in North Africa to refer to the old center part of a city.
Menshevik: A member of a wing of the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party before and during the Russian revolutions of 1905 and 1917. Unlike the Bolsheviks (q.v.), the Mensheviks believed in the gradual achievement of socialism by parliamentary methods.; Source: Library of Congress
Mercosul: See Common Market of the South.; Source: Library of Congress
Mercosur (Mercado Común del Cono Sur-- Southern Cone Common Market): An organization established on March 26, 1991, by Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay for the purpose of promoting regional economic cooperation. Chile was conspicuously absent because of its insistence that the other four countries first had to lower their tariffs to the Chilean level before Chile could join. Mercosur aimed to form a common market by December 31, 1994.
Mesoamerica: literally middle America. Anthropological term for region from central Mexico to northern Honduras that contained advanced civilizations before the arrival of the Europeans.
mestiço (mestizo) or mameluco: Person of mixed racial origin.; Source: Library of Congress
mestiço(s): An individual of mixed white and African ancestry. Several varieties, depending on the nature and degree of mixture, were recognized by the Portuguese and mestiços in the colonial era. Before 1961 most mestiços had the status of assimilado (q.v).; Source: Library of Congress
mestizos: The offspring of Filipino and non-Filipino marriages; includes those of Spanish-Filipino parentage (Spanish mestizos) and Chinese-Filipino parentage (Chinese mestizos).
Metro Manila: Metropolitan Manila; also called the National Capital Region. Includes the cities of Manila, Pasay, Caloocan, and Quezon City and several other major population centers.
mfecane: ""Crushing"" or ""hammering"" (isiZulu); refers to early nineteenth-century upheaval in southeastern Africa caused by expansion of Zulu society under the military leadership of Shaka and combined economic and population pressures throughout the region; difeqane, in seSotho.
middle belt: Traditionally an ethnic and political zone stretching from east to west across the central section of Nigeria and inhabited by many minor ethnic groups who had been unable to obtain significant political influence because of long-term dominance by the Hausa-Fulani and Kanuri emirates. As used by economists and geographers, the term does not always coincide with ethnic and political divisions but usually designates the area between the characteristic northern and southern economies; in this context the area extends roughly from 7o30’N to 11oN. Since the civil war of 1967-70 and the replacement of the former administrative regions by states, use of the term has diminished among Nigerians who wish to downplay the regional connotation formerly attached to it.
millet: In the Ottoman Empire, the policy for governance of non-Muslim minorities. The system created autonomous communities ruled by religious leaders responsible to the central government.; Source: Library of Congress
minifundia: Source: Library of Congress
minifundios: Very small landholdings, legally held, allowing only a bare existence.
Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR): A twenty-five-member organization established in April 1987 to counter missile proliferation by controlling the export of key missile technologies and equipment.; Source: Library of Congress