History of Capoeira and the Afro-Brazilian Tradition

Introduction

Capoeira is the Afro-Brazilian martial art combining elements of combat, dance, music, acrobatics, cultural expression, and spirituality, with continuous documented practice from Afro-Brazilian slave-era origins extending from at least the sixteenth century through the modern global capoeira tradition. The continued capoeira tradition has produced extraordinary cultural developments through approximately 500 years. The modern global capoeira landscape is anchored by the two principal capoeira styles (Capoeira Angola and Capoeira Regional, with various subsequent Capoeira Contemporânea and various other subsequent capoeira styles), various international capoeira academies and various subsequent international capoeira events including various subsequent international capoeira encontros (gatherings), various subsequent international batizados (capoeira graduation ceremonies), and various other international capoeira competitive and cultural events. This article surveys the full history of capoeira from Afro-Brazilian slave-era origins, the 1830 first documented capoeira reference, the 1890 Brazilian Penal Code criminalization of capoeira, the 1932 Mestre Bimba establishment of the Capoeira Regional academy, the 1937 legalization, the 1941 Mestre Pastinha establishment of the Capoeira Angola academy, various subsequent Capoeira Regional and Capoeira Angola traditions, various subsequent international capoeira spread, the 2008 UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity recognition of the Roda de Capoeira and the Officio dos Mestres de Capoeira (subsequent to the 2014 UNESCO recognition extension), and the future of the global capoeira landscape.

Afro-Brazilian Origins

Capoeira extends from Afro-Brazilian slave-era origins, with earliest documented capoeira references extending from at least the sixteenth century. The continued capoeira tradition has produced extraordinary cultural developments through approximately 500 years. The Portuguese transatlantic slave trade extending from the early sixteenth century through the 1888 Lei Áurea ("Golden Law") abolition of slavery in Brazil established the Afro-Brazilian cultural tradition. Various subsequent Afro-Brazilian cultural developments through subsequent decades have continued. Various subsequent Afro-Brazilian capoeira tradition was shaped by various African cultural traditions including Angolan (specifically the N'golo or zebra dance), Kongo, Benin, Mozambican, and various other African cultural traditions. The N'golo ("zebra dance") tradition from the Mucope region of Angola shaped the capoeira tradition. The continued N'golo tradition through subsequent decades has continued. The N'golo tradition includes various subsequent foot-based combat and ritual dance components. Various subsequent Engenho (the Brazilian sugar plantation) and Quilombo (the Brazilian Maroon settlements of runaway enslaved Africans) tradition established the principal modern Afro-Brazilian capoeira tradition. The Quilombo dos Palmares (the most significant Brazilian Quilombo, founded approximately 1605 in the Pernambuco / Alagoas region of northeastern Brazil) extended the principal modern Afro-Brazilian Quilombo cultural tradition. Zumbi dos Palmares (the Quilombo dos Palmares leader, killed November 20, 1695) established the principal modern Afro-Brazilian cultural figure. The November 20 Black Consciousness Day (Dia da Consciência Negra) Brazilian national holiday (established 2003) extended the principal modern Afro-Brazilian cultural recognition. Various subsequent enslaved Africans in Brazil from various African regions including the Kingdom of Kongo, the Mbundu (the Angola Kingdom), the Yoruba, the Igbo, various Mozambican groups, and various other African groups established the principal modern Afro-Brazilian cultural tradition.

1830 Documentation and the Criminalization

The 1830 first documented capoeira reference in the Brazilian police records established the principal modern capoeira documented tradition. The 1808-1821 Portuguese royal family relocation to Brazil (following the Napoleonic invasion of Portugal) shaped the principal modern Brazilian cultural tradition. The 1822 Brazilian Independence and 1825 Treaty of Rio de Janeiro established the principal modern Brazilian political tradition. The 1888 Lei Áurea ("Golden Law") abolition of slavery in Brazil shaped the principal modern Afro-Brazilian tradition. The 1888 Princess Isabel of Brazil's signing of the Lei Áurea established the principal modern Brazilian abolition tradition. The 1890 Brazilian Penal Code (Article 402) criminalization of capoeira established the principal modern capoeira criminalization. The 1890 Brazilian Penal Code criminalization of capoeira was driven by various subsequent Brazilian political concerns about various subsequent Afro-Brazilian cultural and political activities. The 1890 Brazilian Penal Code criminalization of capoeira included the 2-6 months imprisonment for capoeira practice. The continued various subsequent capoeira criminalization through approximately 47 years (1890-1937) has continued. Various subsequent 1890s and 1900s capoeira criminalization era shaped the principal modern capoeira tradition. Various subsequent capoeira tradition adaptations including the "capoeira berimbau" (the berimbau musical bow accompanying capoeira) established various subsequent capoeira musical traditions. Various subsequent 1890s and 1900s maltas (various subsequent capoeira gangs of Rio de Janeiro) extended the principal modern capoeira criminalization era. Various subsequent maltas including the Nagoa, the Guaiamum, the Saracura, and various others have continued through subsequent decades.

Mestre Bimba and Capoeira Regional

Mestre Bimba (Manuel dos Reis Machado, 1899-1974), the Brazilian capoeira master, established the principal modern Capoeira Regional tradition. Mestre Bimba's 1932 founding of the Centro de Cultura Física e Capoeira Regional academy in Salvador established the principal modern Capoeira Regional tradition. Mestre Bimba's 1937 performances for President Getúlio Vargas extended the principal modern capoeira legalization. Mestre Bimba's 1937 various subsequent Brazilian Presidential Palace capoeira demonstrations established the principal modern capoeira political and cultural recognition. The 1937 capoeira legalization (subsequent to the 1934 Vargas administration cultural policy and the subsequent 1937 Vargas Estado Novo political restructuring) extended the principal modern capoeira tradition. The Capoeira Regional tradition synthesized Capoeira Angola with the Batuque (the Bahian Afro-Brazilian martial art) and various other cultural influences. The Capoeira Regional tradition includes various Regional cordas (graduation system), various Regional sequences (structured training movements), and various other principal modern Capoeira Regional tradition components. Mestre Bimba's various students including Mestre Camisa (José Tadeu de Carvalho Cabral), Mestre Itapoan (Raimundo César Alves de Almeida), Mestre Acordeon (Bira Almeida), Mestre Cláudio, Mestre Decanio, Mestre Lua de Bobó, and various others extended the principal modern Capoeira Regional tradition through subsequent decades. The 1974 Mestre Bimba death in Goiânia (where Mestre Bimba had been living in his later years after leaving Salvador) extended Mestre Bimba's legacy. The continued Mestre Bimba tradition through subsequent decades has continued. The 2017 various subsequent Mestre Bimba cultural recognition through subsequent decades has continued. The Centro de Cultura Física e Capoeira Regional academy established the principal modern Salvador Capoeira Regional academy tradition. Various subsequent Capoeira Regional academy developments across various global cities through subsequent decades have continued.

Mestre Pastinha and Capoeira Angola

Mestre Pastinha (Vicente Ferreira Pastinha, 1889-1981), the Brazilian capoeira master, established the principal modern Capoeira Angola tradition. Mestre Pastinha's 1941 founding of the Centro Esportivo de Capoeira Angola academy in the Pelourinho neighborhood of Salvador established the principal modern Capoeira Angola tradition. The Capoeira Angola tradition preserves various subsequent traditional Afro-Brazilian capoeira elements. The Capoeira Angola tradition includes a slower tempo, a lower stance, an emphasis on cultural and spiritual components, and various other principal modern Capoeira Angola tradition components. Mestre Pastinha's various students including Mestre João Grande (João Oliveira dos Santos, 1933-2024), Mestre João Pequeno (João Pereira dos Santos, 1917-2011), Mestre Curió (Jaime de Mar Filho), Mestre Boca Rica (Manoel Hélio Bispo do Nascimento), Mestre Bola Sete (José Geniberto Costa Lopes), Mestre Cobra Mansa (Cinézio Feliciano Peçanha), and various others extended the principal modern Capoeira Angola tradition through subsequent decades. Mestre João Grande (1933-2024), the Brazilian capoeira master, extended the principal modern Capoeira Angola tradition through the twentieth century. Mestre João Grande's 1990 emigration to New York City and Mestre João Grande's 1995 founding of the Capoeira Angola Center of Mestre João Grande established the principal modern American Capoeira Angola tradition. The 2001 Mestre João Grande NEA National Heritage Fellowship (the first capoeira master to receive the NEA National Heritage Fellowship) extended the principal modern capoeira cultural recognition. The 1981 Mestre Pastinha death in Salvador extended Mestre Pastinha's legacy. Mestre Pastinha's 1969 autobiography Capoeira Angola extended the principal modern Capoeira Angola literary tradition. The Centro Esportivo de Capoeira Angola established the principal modern Salvador Capoeira Angola academy tradition. Various subsequent Capoeira Angola academy developments across various global cities through subsequent decades have continued.

Roda, Music, and Cultural Components

The capoeira Roda (the circle in which capoeira is practiced) establishes the principal modern capoeira cultural component. The continued capoeira Roda tradition through subsequent decades has continued. The capoeira Roda includes various subsequent principal modern capoeira components including the two jogadores (the two players), the bateria (the music ensemble), and various other principal modern capoeira Roda components. The capoeira bateria (the music ensemble) establishes the principal modern capoeira musical tradition. The continued capoeira bateria tradition through subsequent decades has continued. The capoeira bateria includes the berimbau (the berimbau musical bow, the principal modern capoeira instrument), the pandeiro (the Brazilian tambourine), the atabaque (the Brazilian conga drum), the agogô (the Brazilian double bell), and the reco-reco (the Brazilian scraper). The berimbau musical bow includes the gunga (the low-tuned berimbau, providing the rhythmic foundation), the médio (the medium-tuned berimbau, providing the harmonic component), and the viola (the high-tuned berimbau, providing the melodic component). The continued berimbau tradition through subsequent decades has continued. Various subsequent capoeira musical components including various subsequent capoeira songs, various subsequent capoeira ladainhas (various subsequent capoeira openings), various subsequent capoeira chulas (various subsequent capoeira praise songs), various subsequent capoeira corridos (various subsequent capoeira call-and-response songs), and various other principal modern capoeira musical components have continued through subsequent decades. The capoeira movements include various subsequent floreios (the acrobatic movements), various subsequent ataques (the attacks), various subsequent defesas (the defenses), various subsequent esquivas (the dodges), various subsequent rasteiras (the sweeps), and various other principal modern capoeira movements. Various subsequent capoeira movements include the ginga (the principal capoeira movement, the walking-style swaying movement that is the principal foundation of various capoeira movements), the meia-lua de frente (the frontal half-moon kick), the meia-lua de compasso (the spinning half-moon kick), the armada (the spinning kick), the queixada (the chin-aiming kick), the benção (the thrust kick), the negativa (the negative defense), the chamada (the call), and various other principal modern capoeira movements.

International Spread and Modern Practice

The 1970s and 1980s capoeira international spread established the principal modern global capoeira tradition. The continued various subsequent capoeira international spread through subsequent decades has continued through subsequent decades. The 1970s Mestre Acordeon (Bira Almeida) emigration to California established the principal modern American Capoeira Regional tradition. The 1980s Mestre Camisa Roxa emigration to various international cities extended the principal modern international capoeira tradition. The 1986 Grupo Capoeira Brasil founding by Mestre Boneco (José Tadeu Cardoso da Silva) extended the principal modern international capoeira tradition. The 1988 Cordão de Ouro founding by Mestre Suassuna (Reinaldo Ramos Suassuna) extended the principal modern international capoeira tradition. The 1995 Mestre João Grande's founding of the Capoeira Angola Center of Mestre João Grande in New York City extended the principal modern American Capoeira Angola tradition. The continued Capoeira Angola Center of Mestre João Grande tradition through subsequent decades has continued. The 2024 Mestre João Grande death extended the Mestre João Grande legacy. Various subsequent capoeira international academies including the Senzala (founded 1965 by Mestre Camisa Roxa, Mestre Itapoan, Mestre Acordeon, Mestre Camisa, and various others), the Cordão de Ouro (founded 1988), the Grupo Capoeira Brasil (founded 1986), the Abadá-Capoeira (founded 1988 by Mestre Camisa), and various others have established the principal modern international capoeira tradition. The 2008 UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity recognition of the Roda de Capoeira and the Officio dos Mestres de Capoeira extended the principal modern capoeira cultural recognition. The 2014 UNESCO recognition extension extended the principal modern capoeira cultural recognition. The 2014 Brazilian Patrimônio Cultural do Brasil (Brazilian Cultural Heritage) recognition of capoeira (the Roda de Capoeira and the Officio dos Mestres de Capoeira) extended the principal modern Brazilian cultural recognition. The 2010 various subsequent Brazilian capoeira Public Acts in support of capoeira including various subsequent Brazilian state and federal capoeira recognitions extended the principal modern Brazilian capoeira cultural and political recognition.

Capoeira Styles — Regional, Angola, and Contemporânea

The two principal capoeira styles include Capoeira Angola and Capoeira Regional. The continued various subsequent Capoeira Angola and Capoeira Regional tradition through subsequent decades has continued. Various subsequent Capoeira Contemporânea and various other subsequent capoeira styles have continued through subsequent decades. The Capoeira Angola tradition includes a slower tempo, a lower stance, an emphasis on cultural and spiritual components, an emphasis on malícia (the cleverness or trickery), and an emphasis on axé (the life energy). The continued Capoeira Angola tradition through subsequent decades has continued. The Capoeira Regional tradition includes a faster tempo, a higher stance, an emphasis on martial arts components, an emphasis on floreios (the acrobatic movements), and an emphasis on structured Regional sequences. The continued Capoeira Regional tradition through subsequent decades has continued. The Capoeira Contemporânea tradition emerged through the 1970s and 1980s as a hybrid of the Capoeira Angola and Capoeira Regional traditions. The continued Capoeira Contemporânea tradition through subsequent decades has continued. Various subsequent Capoeira Contemporânea academies including various international academies have continued through subsequent decades. The Capoeira corda (graduation cord) system establishes the principal modern capoeira graduation tradition. The continued Capoeira corda system through subsequent decades has continued. Various Capoeira Regional corda system including various color cords (various color cords for various student ranks, with specific color cord systems varying across various capoeira groups) establishes the principal modern Capoeira Regional graduation tradition. The Capoeira batizado (graduation ceremony) tradition establishes the principal modern capoeira annual ceremony. The continued batizado tradition through subsequent decades has continued. Various subsequent batizado ceremonies across various international capoeira groups have continued through subsequent decades. The Capoeira encontro (gathering) tradition establishes the principal modern capoeira annual gathering. The continued encontro tradition through subsequent decades has continued. Various subsequent encontro events across various international capoeira groups have continued through subsequent decades. Various subsequent capoeira graduation system terminology including the aluno (student), the graduado (graduated student), the instrutor (instructor), the professor (teacher), the contramestre (assistant master), the mestre (master), and the grão-mestre (grand master) establishes the principal modern capoeira graduation terminology.

Capoeira in Sport, Film, and Media

The capoeira cultural tradition extends substantially beyond the competitive capoeira tradition. The continued various capoeira cultural traditions through subsequent decades have continued. Various subsequent capoeira films including Mestre Bimba's 1964 Roda de Capoeira film (the first capoeira film in any era), the 1976 Carlos Diegues film Xica da Silva (various subsequent capoeira components), the 1993 Walter Salles film Foreign Land (various subsequent capoeira components), the 1994 Sean Connery film Rising Sun (various subsequent capoeira components), the 2002 Carlos Diegues film Orfeu (various subsequent capoeira components), the 2006 Felipe Hilst film Capoeira Connection (various subsequent capoeira components), and various others have extended the principal modern capoeira film tradition. Various subsequent capoeira principal modern action film references including the 2002 Tony Jaa film Ong-Bak (various subsequent capoeira components), the 2004 Lateef Crowder Dos Santos cameo in the Bourne film series, various subsequent principal modern action films including the 2008 Lateef Crowder Dos Santos film Tom Yum Goong 2, and various other principal modern action film capoeira references have continued through subsequent decades. Various subsequent capoeira television references through subsequent decades have continued. The continued various subsequent capoeira broader cultural prominence through subsequent decades has continued through subsequent decades. Various subsequent capoeira in video games including the Eddy Gordo character in the Tekken video game series (various subsequent Tekken capoeira character developments through subsequent decades), the Christie Monteiro character in the Tekken video game series, the Elena character in the Street Fighter video game series, the Maxi character in the Soulcalibur video game series (various subsequent Soulcalibur capoeira character developments through subsequent decades), and various other principal modern video game capoeira references have continued through subsequent decades. Various subsequent capoeira academic developments through subsequent decades have continued. The continued various subsequent capoeira academic and literary tradition through subsequent decades has continued. Various subsequent capoeira research publications including various subsequent academic capoeira publications across various Brazilian and various subsequent international academic institutions have continued through subsequent decades. Various subsequent capoeira competitive structure including various Brazilian capoeira federations and various subsequent capoeira competitive structures has continued through subsequent decades. The 1972 Confederação Brasileira de Capoeira founding extended the principal modern Brazilian capoeira federation tradition.

Capoeira and Health, Wellness, and Education

The capoeira health and wellness components establish the principal modern capoeira health and wellness tradition. The continued capoeira health and wellness tradition through subsequent decades has continued. Various subsequent capoeira health benefits including principal cardiovascular health benefits, flexibility benefits, muscular strength benefits, coordination benefits, balance benefits, mental health benefits, and various other principal modern capoeira health benefits have continued through subsequent decades. Various subsequent capoeira educational programs including various Brazilian state and federal capoeira educational programs, various subsequent international capoeira educational programs, various subsequent capoeira-as-PE programs across various international school systems, and various other principal modern capoeira educational programs have continued through subsequent decades. The 2010 Brazilian Law 12.288/2010 (the Brazilian Statute of Racial Equality) extended the principal modern Brazilian Afro-Brazilian cultural recognition including various subsequent capoeira recognition. The continued various subsequent Brazilian Statute of Racial Equality tradition through subsequent decades has continued. Various subsequent capoeira at-risk youth programs including various subsequent Salvador-based at-risk youth programs (the 1990s Mestre Suassuna's various subsequent at-risk youth programs in São Paulo), various subsequent international at-risk youth programs, and various other principal modern capoeira at-risk youth programs have continued through subsequent decades. Various subsequent capoeira inclusion programs for various disability populations including various subsequent visually impaired capoeira programs, various subsequent hearing impaired capoeira programs, various subsequent physically impaired capoeira programs, and various other principal modern capoeira inclusion programs have continued through subsequent decades. Various subsequent capoeira and sports science research through subsequent decades has continued. The continued various subsequent capoeira and sports science research through subsequent decades has continued.

Capoeira Mestres and the Modern Tradition

Various Brazilian capoeira mestres (masters) have established the principal modern capoeira tradition through subsequent decades. The continued various Brazilian capoeira mestres tradition through subsequent decades has continued. Various Capoeira Angola mestres including Mestre Pastinha (1889-1981), Mestre João Grande (1933-2024), Mestre João Pequeno (1917-2011), Mestre Curió, Mestre Boca Rica, Mestre Cobra Mansa, Mestre Bola Sete, Mestre Moraes (Pedro Moraes Trindade, of the Grupo de Capoeira Angola Pelourinho), and various others have established the principal modern Capoeira Angola mestre tradition. Various Capoeira Regional mestres including Mestre Bimba (1899-1974), Mestre Camisa (José Tadeu de Carvalho Cabral, of the Abadá-Capoeira), Mestre Itapoan, Mestre Acordeon, Mestre Cláudio, Mestre Decanio, Mestre Suassuna (Reinaldo Ramos Suassuna, of the Cordão de Ouro), Mestre Boneco (José Tadeu Cardoso da Silva, of the Grupo Capoeira Brasil), and various others have established the principal modern Capoeira Regional mestre tradition. Various subsequent capoeira mestres' cultural recognition through subsequent decades has continued. Various subsequent capoeira mestres' academic and literary contributions through subsequent decades have continued. The 1969 Mestre Pastinha's autobiography Capoeira Angola extended the principal modern Capoeira Angola literary tradition. The continued Mestre Pastinha's various subsequent publications through subsequent decades have continued. Various subsequent capoeira mestres' academic publications including Mestre Acordeon's Capoeira: A Brazilian Art Form (Sun Wave, 1986), various subsequent Capoeira mestres' academic publications, and various other principal modern capoeira mestres' publications have continued through subsequent decades. Various subsequent capoeira mestres' international cultural exchanges and various subsequent international academic exchanges through subsequent decades have continued. Various subsequent capoeira mestres' cultural awards and recognition including various subsequent Brazilian National Patrimony recognition, various subsequent UNESCO recognition, various subsequent international cultural awards, and various other principal modern capoeira mestres' recognition have continued through subsequent decades.

The Future of Capoeira, Conclusion, and Sources

The future of capoeira faces a series of significant questions in the third decade of the twenty-first century. The continued various capoeira styles' development, the continued various capoeira mestres' cultural recognition, the continued various international capoeira spread, the continued various subsequent Brazilian cultural recognition, and the continued various subsequent capoeira educational developments will all continue to shape the capoeira landscape. The continued various capoeira styles' development will continue through subsequent decades. The continued Capoeira Angola, Capoeira Regional, Capoeira Contemporânea, and various other subsequent capoeira styles will continue through subsequent decades. The continued various capoeira mestres' cultural recognition will continue through subsequent decades. Various subsequent capoeira mestres' cultural recognition through subsequent decades will continue. The continued various international capoeira spread will continue through subsequent decades. Various subsequent European, American, Asian, African, Oceanian, and various other subsequent capoeira international spread will continue through subsequent decades. The continued various subsequent Brazilian cultural recognition will continue through subsequent decades. Various subsequent Brazilian Patrimônio Cultural do Brasil and various subsequent Brazilian governmental capoeira recognition will continue through subsequent decades. Individual capoeira figures will continue to shape the capoeira tradition. The continued careers of various Brazilian and international capoeira mestres, various capoeira teachers, various capoeira practitioners, and many others will continue to shape the capoeira legacy. Capoeira will continue to evolve. The continued various capoeira styles' development, the continued various capoeira mestres' cultural recognition, the continued various international capoeira spread, the continued various subsequent Brazilian cultural recognition, the continued various subsequent capoeira educational developments, and various other changes will all continue to shape the capoeira landscape through subsequent decades. Yet the basic principle of capoeira — the fundamental Afro-Brazilian cultural tradition that has underpinned the Afro-Brazilian cultural identity since Afro-Brazilian slave-era origins — has shaped the Afro-Brazilian cultural tradition for more than 500 years and shows no sign of fading. Sources include: Nestor Capoeira, Capoeira: Roots of the Dance-Fight-Game (North Atlantic Books, 2002); Nestor Capoeira, The Little Capoeira Book (North Atlantic Books, 2007); Bira Almeida (Mestre Acordeon), Capoeira: A Brazilian Art Form (Sun Wave, 1986); Vicente Ferreira Pastinha (Mestre Pastinha), Capoeira Angola (Editora Escola Gráfica N. S. Loreto, 1969); Maya Talmon-Chvaicer, The Hidden History of Capoeira: A Collision of Cultures in the Brazilian Battle Dance (University of Texas Press, 2008); Greg Downey, Learning Capoeira: Lessons in Cunning from an Afro-Brazilian Art (Oxford University Press, 2005); Matthias Röhrig Assunção, Capoeira: The History of an Afro-Brazilian Martial Art (Routledge, 2005); BBC Sport coverage, bbc.co.uk/sport (records and archives); UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage archives, ich.unesco.org (records).